Wikiversity talk:Main Page

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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contribs/Bclasses 1|Bclasses 1]] ([[User talk:Bclasses 1|talk]]) to last version by Jtneill: unnecessary links or spam</comment>
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{{attention}} To request an edit to the [[Wikiversity:Page protection|protected]] Main Page, add {{tl|editprotected}} to your request. Such requests should either be obvious or uncontroversial, or be discussed to show consensus, so please do not make vague requests here. If possible, describe exactly what changes should be made so that any custodian can quickly satisfy the request.&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To raise general topics about [[Wikiversity]], make general suggestions about Wikiversity, to ask questions, or to talk about anything else of a general nature, use the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]].&lt;br&gt;
{{attention}} To discuss the structure, appearance, etc. of the [[Wikiversity:Main Page|Main Page]], go to the [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and the [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].
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'''''If you wish to post something below, go ahead. It's a talk page. But you are more likely to get a response by going to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]], which is where the main talking at Wikiversity goes on! See you there.'''''

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== The Wikiversity:Main page learning project ==

The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] was launched after the redesign of the main page in December 2007. The [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] has as its goal &quot;the promotion of responsible involvement of the Wikiversity community in an efficient, productive, open and inclusive maintenance of the Wikiversity main page as a flagship of the activity and values of the Wikiversity community&quot;. If you would like to get involved in the design of the main page, this is where to go. 

If you have general comments about the main page, but you don't especially want to get involved in the main page project, then you can also leave comments on the [[Wikiversity_talk:Main page learning project|talk page for the main page learning project]].

:I've suggested that it might be time to retire the &quot;quote of the day&quot; project and remove the quotes from the Main Page. See: [[Wikiversity talk:Main page learning project/QOTD]]. It might also be appropriate to deprecate the inactive [[Wikiversity:Main page learning project]] and archive it. Thoughts? --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 23:37, 29 November 2019 (UTC)

== add new language university ==
Now that Chinese Wikiversity is created, please add a cross-wiki link to it. --[[User:WQL|WQL]] ([[User talk:WQL|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/WQL|contribs]]) 12:52, 12 August 2018 (UTC)

:{{Done}} -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:29, 12 August 2018 (UTC)
::What about zulu language [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 05:57, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

== Edit request from 204.234.101.112, 14 February 2019 ==

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[[Special:Contributions/204.234.101.112|204.234.101.112]] ([[User talk:204.234.101.112|discuss]]) 21:17, 14 February 2019 (UTC)

:{{Not done}} Empty request -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:11, 15 February 2019 (UTC)

== Georgian (ka) wikiversity ==
PLEASE 

Help me to make Georgian (ka) wikiversity--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 17:23, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

:{{at|ჯეო}} See https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Main_Page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:00, 1 March 2019 (UTC)

დიდი მადლობა (Didi Madloba-Thank You)!--[[User:ჯეო|ჯეო]] ([[User talk:ჯეო|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ჯეო|contribs]]) 08:44, 2 March 2019 (UTC)

::Please see [[betawikiversity:Category:KA]]. That is the appropriate place to create learning pages in this language. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 14:11, 10 March 2019 (UTC)

== new langueages ==

we should admit crosing of languajes to have a better understanding--[[Special:Contributions/201.208.239.198|201.208.239.198]] ([[User talk:201.208.239.198|discuss]]) 19:34, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

:This is the English Wikiversity. See [[:es:Portada|Wikiversidad]] for Wikiversity in Spanish. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:39, 25 July 2019 (UTC)

== How to change an username? ==

How to change an username? --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:27, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
*{{ping|Josephina Phoebe White}} You can request at [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest]] --[[User:94rain|94rain]] ([[User talk:94rain|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/94rain|contribs]]) 07:29, 28 August 2019 (UTC)
Thanks. --[[User:Josephina Phoebe White|Josephina Phoebe White]] ([[User talk:Josephina Phoebe White|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Josephina Phoebe White|contribs]]) 07:45, 28 August 2019 (UTC)

==Religious user names allowed in Wikiversity?==

https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Username

Names of religious figures such as &quot;God&quot;, &quot;Jehovah&quot;,&quot;Buddha&quot;,&quot;Jainism&quot;,&quot;Bonadea&quot;,Hinduism or &quot;Allah&quot;, which user names prohibited

Please answer for my question. This Wikiversity user name policy still alive? Religious user names are prohibited? 

:It isn't a policy, but it's a guideline for people who are wanting to register an account are recommended to follow (as per the page, which could be changed with community consensus). I see no reason for this statement to be &quot;dead&quot;. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 00:15, 2 September 2019 (UTC)
::: Yes: Religious user names are under hedding &quot;Inflammatory usernames&quot;, will be blocked and not allowed.

== LinkedIn ==

I insist that a Wikiversity page should be added on LinkedIn. Wikimedia has its LinkedIn page; Wikipedia, too. But not Wikiversity. I tried to show my Swedish studies but could not choose Wikiversity as the Institution. Why not? Even when it is not a &quot;granting degree&quot; Institution, is is still an Institution, right? When I contacted LinkedIn about this, they sent me the link so that I can create myself the Wikiversity page. But then there is box I must tick: &quot; I confirm I am an approved authority of this Institution to create this page&quot;, which is not the case. But I think there are many Wikiversity experts on here that woud qualify as Wikiversity Linkedin page creators. I can create the page if someone here approves, but I would need some info: # of employees, etc. --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 23:34, 18 January 2020 (UTC)

:The information would go here [https://www.linkedin.com/company/setup/new/ Wikiversity institution] but it probably should have a bureaucrat or someone from the WMF tick &quot;I verify that I am an authorized representative of this organization and have the right to act on its behalf in the creation and management of this page. The organization and I agree to the additional terms for Pages.&quot; The number of employees (volunteers is not an option but we are unpaid) for our Wikiversity I guess could be the number of active users 201-500. The current logo is File:Wikiversity logo 2017.svg. The website can be https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page.--[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:16, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} Wikiversity is a community. None of us gets to insist that anything happen on behalf of the community unless there is consensus to do so. This requires a discussion in the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] and a vote for support or lack thereof. Because this request involves an outside organization, it may also require support from the WMF.

I have some concerns at this point that your passion regarding this issue far exceeds your demonstrated commitment to either Wikiversity or the wider Wikimedia community. It might be better to let this rest for a bit and learn more about how Wikiversity functions before insisting that this be discussed. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 03:29, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Dave Braunschweig}}: I apologize for the use of the word &quot;insist&quot;, I have taken note to not use it anymore here to avoid distractions from the main topic of conversation. Also, I do not like you judge how much my passions should go against my level of contributions. With that being said, and for my personal learning on this environment, can someone please guide me on the very first step I should take to have a Wikiversity page created on LinkedIn? I think you mentioned something like a &quot;poll&quot;, how do I do that? --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 04:38, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

::{{At|Leonardo T. Cardillo}} I have already guided you on the next step to take. Please read my response carefully. Then slow down and learn more about Wikiversity. We often have people come in with high passions and quick fixes that Wikiversity must make in order to improve. They're typically gone within a month and we're left having to clean up after them. That's not to suggest that this is or isn't a good idea. It is simply to point out that this is a community. You must first learn to work with the community before you try to change it. We look forward to working with you as you figure this out. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:31, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

:::{{At|Dave Braunschweig}} Thanks so much for your inputs. I have created this: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Colloquium#LinkedIn. Please indicate if that is the next step that was intended to be created. Also, please guide on the following ones. Best regards, --[[User:Leonardo T. Cardillo|Leonardo T. Cardillo]] ([[User talk:Leonardo T. Cardillo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leonardo T. Cardillo|contribs]]) 16:27, 19 January 2020 (UTC)

== Add New Language ==

Why not bn.wikiversity?  But there is Hindi!  Make it, please.  I am ready to cooperate if needed. [[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]] ([[User talk:Hirok Raja|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hirok Raja|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:[[User:Hirok Raja|Hirok Raja]]: please see [[:betawikiversity:|Wikiversity Beta]]. &amp;mdash;Hasley&amp;nbsp;[[user talk:Hasley|&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0645AD; vertical-align: super; font-size: smaller;&quot;&gt;talk&lt;/span&gt;]] 13:04, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

:{{At|Hirok Raja}} Also see [[meta:Wikiversity]]. We are the English Wikiversity. We have no role in setting up new Wikiversity languages. When bn.wikiversity is added, please let us know, and we will add it to our main page. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 13:59, 1 August 2020 (UTC)

== I'm learning Turkish🤩 ==

Hi(to the person reading this)! I'm learning Turkish and I would like someone(native Turkish speaker) to teach how to pronounce Turkish. I do know some words,alphabets and number☺️ and I'm still learning and I hope someone is willing to help me🥺.

@JinahJady! [[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] ([[User talk:JanehJody|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JanehJody|contribs]]) 18:14, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

:Hi. Welcome to Wikiversity! Please see our [[Turkish|resources relating to the study of the Turkish language]]. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:41, 4 February 2021 (UTC)
::Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] can i help you ::) [[User:MexmetW|MexmetW]] ([[User talk:MexmetW|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MexmetW|contribs]]) 07:47, 28 September 2022 (UTC)
:Hi,@[[User:JanehJody|JanehJody]] I would love to help you to learning turkish :) [[Special:Contributions/85.105.185.109|85.105.185.109]] ([[User talk:85.105.185.109|discuss]]) 07:31, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

== Is it Wikipedia remodeled or a copy of wikipedia? ==

I am confused--[[User:Noukden|Noukden]] ([[User talk:Noukden|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Noukden|contribs]]) 20:45, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

:{{At|Noukden}} None of the above. See [[What is Wikiversity?]] and [[What Wikiversity is not]]. Wikiversity is learning projects. Link to Wikipedia rather than duplicating it and then add hands-on activities so users can learn by doing. See [[IT Fundamentals]] for one approach. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:15, 25 May 2021 (UTC)

== Action in the earliest? ==

I want to know much more of all action that happend in the earliest centuries. [[User:Dilbkhay|Dilbkhay]] ([[User talk:Dilbkhay|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dilbkhay|contribs]]) 14:57, 21 August 2021 (UTC)

:Depending upon what you mean by &quot;earliest&quot;, have a look at [[Paleanthropology]] or [[Philosophy/Sciences]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 21:07, 20 September 2021 (UTC)

== Biology ==

What are the basic principles of ecology [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 18:25, 25 January 2022 (UTC)

:{{At|Aludriyo Dominic}} Welcome! See [[Wikipedia:Ecology]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 00:17, 26 January 2022 (UTC)
:{{ping|Aludriyo Dominic}} I invite you to read [[User:Atcovi/Science/Ecology]] if you're interested in learning about the basics of Ecology. Also check out the wikipedia link above and [[:Category:Ecology|this category]]. Thanks and weclome! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:44, 26 January 2022 (UTC)

I will try to study [[User:Aludriyo Dominic|Aludriyo Dominic]] ([[User talk:Aludriyo Dominic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Aludriyo Dominic|contribs]]) 05:41, 28 January 2022 (UTC)

== Physics ==

Physics Can Be defined as A Pure Science Subject That deals with the Measurement Of Matter In relation to energy. --{{Unsigned|Oyeyemi Abdul-warith|29 January 2022}}

: Welcome to Wikiversity! Here is a landing page that may be helpful: [[Physics]]. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:42, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

== Popularize ==

Can someone popularize California or the State of Washington on the Main Page? [[Special:Contributions/2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304]] ([[User talk:2604:3D08:6286:7500:B441:2710:77A4:1304|discuss]]) 03:33, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

:No, sorry, promotion isn't part of the [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:06, 26 June 2022 (UTC)

== [[w:Armistice of WWI|Armistice of WWI]], [[w:Paris Peace Conference|Paris Peace Conference]] and Aftermath ==

The best time to feature this on the main page was last week or yesterday;  the second best time is today.

* [[w:Template:First_World_War_treaties]]  (this template should get transcluded or copied to wikiversity, since this doesn't work: {{w:First_World_War_treaties}} although I wish it would)
* [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Proclaiming_Armistice_of_WWI_Remembrance_and_Veterans_Day_for_11th_Nov]] our course on WWI is woefully inadequate, but this is a good time to start improving it!
[[User:Jaredscribe|Jaredscribe]] ([[User talk:Jaredscribe|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jaredscribe|contribs]]) 10:22, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

== Can you please add isiZulu plz ==

Because all othere languages her so i can umderstand batter  [[User:Lucky Shabalala|Lucky Shabalala]] ([[User talk:Lucky Shabalala|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lucky Shabalala|contribs]]) 06:06, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

:Add it how? Add more resources to learn the language? I think that would be fantastic, but it's very labor-intensive and I doubt anyone here has the competence to add that kind of material. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:40, 30 April 2025 (UTC)

== banner ==

says set learning free, propare grammer would be Start learning for free [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 20:21, 3 February 2026 (UTC)

:I'm a native American English speaker and this banner is grammatical. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''vf&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 08:52, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
::That’s not the problem. I’m wondering if we should more clearly emphasize what Wikiversity is on this banner. Idk maybe it’s fine as it is I would just like it to be clearer[[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:15, 4 February 2026 (UTC)
:::nevermind i just got the banner thought it was supposed to say start learning free, but its actually set learning free(like release learning) [[User:Ducklan|Ducklan]] ([[User talk:Ducklan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ducklan|contribs]]) 16:12, 6 February 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Building Construction: Means &amp; Methods ==
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common - design, financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structure collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

Building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design &amp; build and design-build bridging. 

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square metre (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential (as well as all other types of construction and manufactured homes) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here.

The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste.

Shri Krishna Impex Marbles and Granites is a trusted supplier of Leather K White Granite in Kokapet, Hyderabad, offering premium-quality granite with a unique leather-textured finish and elegant white-grey patterns. Perfect for kitchen countertops, flooring, wall cladding, and commercial interiors, this granite combines timeless beauty with exceptional durability. Our carefully selected granite slabs are heat-resistant, scratch-resistant, and easy to maintain, making them an ideal choice for modern homes and businesses. At Shri Krishna Impex, we are committed to providing superior natural stone solutions, competitive pricing, and excellent customer service to help you create stylish and long-lasting spaces.

== Construction of Buildings Foundation ==
There are several foundation types we are using in constructions such as pile foundation, raft foundation, pad foundation, combined footing, rubble foundation and spread footing. The selection of foundation type depends on the soil condition and the load about to apply on it. We commonly use pile foundations where apply heavy load such as several stories building and where the soil bearing capacity is very poor like backfill areas, marshy land areas and in sandy areas. For normal houses we use rubble works with pad foundation type. A column foundations we use spread footing type.In any building industry,foundation details is an essential factor in consideration.

== Wood Construction ==
* Timber framing
* Wood furniture restoration
* Wood Coating
* Wood Layering
* Wood Tiles
* Wood Floor Boards

== Concrete &amp; Reinforced Concrete ==
* [[Wikipedia: Reinforced concrete]]
This concrete is termed as RCC since along with the concrete reinforcement is also present. There are various grade of concrete used based on the building load. The grades of concrete start from M15 to M40 and special grade can be of M60,M80. The mix grade can be of proportion of coarse sand/M-sand+cement &amp; slag/fly ash + 10mm down aggregate+ 20mm aggregate + water + admixtures.These trial mixes are designed &amp; tested in labs for 07 days and 28 days to check the strength to be achieved based on the grade of the concrete. Once the trial mix design gets approved the same design can be used at sites. 
The common equipments used for mixing of above said ingredients are:
* weigh batcher+concrete drum mixer operated electrically or by diesel 
* batching plants of capacity 0.5 cum, 1.0 cum, 2.0 cum or 3.0cum
As we are discussing about RCC, we should discuss about Formwork also.
Regarding formwork there are two types:
* Conventional formwork
* Modern day formwork 

:1. Conventional Formwork:
:In this system 
:* shuttering plates 
:* planks/plywood(commercial or marine)(8mm,10mm,12mm,20mm,25mm thick)for sides,bottoms are used
:* to erect and support this formwork- timber, adjustable props, side alignment props,cup-lock system, table form system,etc.are used.
:* Before the formwork is ready for receiving the reinforcement the surface of the formwork will be oiled which will act as stripping agent while stripping.
:* Once all the reinforcement placing and tying works are completed, the alignment and level check is done.
:* After obtaining the checking clearance, concrete is placed.

:2. System Formwork:
:Following are the systems in the modern day: 
:* self climbing or slip formwork
:* Mivan/Pascal formwork
:* Proper preparatory works are to be carried out since once the erection of formwork starts, the same will be moving up and up and will be difficult to rectify if any defects observed and also it is a continuous process.To erect and support this formwork-adjustable props, side alignment props,etc.are used.
:* Before the formwork is ready for receiving the reinforcement the surface of the formwork will be oiled which will act as stripping agent while stripping.
:* Once all the reinforcement placing and tying works are completed, the alignment and level check is done.
:* After obtaining the checking clearance, concrete is placed. 
:* The concrete used in these type of formwork, a highly flowable concrete is used keeping the grade of concrete similar to the normal concrete. 
 
The mix concrete produced by the above methods can be transported by wheel barrows, transit mixers(of capacities 1.0cum,3.0cum,6.0cum,7.0cum)and placed in the confined conventional formwork either by manual or pumping means. For pumping of concrete to various depths,heights and distances the most common equipments used are concrete pumps,boom placers,tower cranes and concrete buckets.

After placing of concrete in the confined formwork, the concrete should be vibrated either by manual or vibrators with vibrator needles and tamping the sides with the help of wooden tampers for concrete to flow to all corners and also to remove the entrapped air bubbles. With this process the entire concrete placed will become dense and no honey-combing are seen once the formwork is stripped down. 

While placing the concrete, a set of cubes for 07 days/28 days are casted, which will be tested in the lab for checking the strength of concrete and comparing to the design mix strength. Based on the achieved strength for 07 days, the time period for de-stripping of formwork is fixed and proper supporting to be kept till the curing period and 28 days.

== Steel and Composite Structures ==
* [[Wikipedia: Steel building]]
Steel Buildings:
These are one type of buildings out of other type like RCC, masonry buildings etc.
These are mostly predominant in the industrial and commercial industry like industrial sheds.
The common components are mainly like foundations with foundation bolts, Vertical columns, trusses, purlins, side sheeting, roof sheeting etc.
In the modern day technology, usage of PEB(Pre-engineered building) structures is on the rise. 
These structures can be erected and completed very fastly, as they are fabricated at ground and erected. Round the clock work can be carried out by taking proper safety measures.
These structures can be used for storages, manufacturing units, logistics, etc.
These structures are more safer than concrete buildings from earthquakes as damages are very minimal.
Nowadays more and more residential buildings are being constructed as steel buildings as there structural life span is comparatively more.
Even with these structures, the environment is protected as the generation of construction debris is less and can be recycled.

== Finishing Materials ==

=== Exterior finishing materials ===
The common exterior finishing materials used are:
# Paints
# Natural stones-granite,marble,etc.ceramics tiles
# Textures
# Glass
# Aluminium sheeting,ACP
# Glass Fibre sheets
# Roof tiles
# Wood/timber

These materials are used as per the availability within the locality unless these are to be specially procured.

=== Interior finishing materials ===
The common interior finishing materials used are:
# Paints
# Natural stones - granite, marble, etc.
# Textures
# Glass
# Aluminium sheeting
# Glass Fibre sheets
# Ceramic/vitrified/mosaic tiles
# Wood/timber
# Gypboards

These materials are used as per the availability within the locality unless these are to be specially procured.

== Waterproofing, Thermal &amp; Moisture Control ==
* [[Wikipedia: Insulation]]

== Openings ==
* [[Wikipedia: Door]]
* [[Wikipedia: Windows]]
Door and window openings are part of a finishing aspect of a building element. In a door opening, the standard dimension of a door is usually 2100mm by 900mm. In this regard, the opening will share same dimension with the door and the lintel thickness allowance by the both sides, usually 225mm.

Window is a part of a building element which allows the passage of light and ventilation in to a building. It is usually dimensioned 600mm by 600mm,900mm by 600mm 1200mm by 1200mm,1200mm by 1800mm, 1200mm by 2100mm etc.

== Fixtures &amp; Furnitures ==

== Building Systems ==

Most of the construction systems become from the material that can be obtained in the job areas.

When these resources were exhausted, new industrialized materials was brought in and also to permit bigger and heavier construction.

== Landscaping ==

== Real examples of building process ==
Work in progress. Building materials will be analyzed.

This is a real example for a planned structure that is going to be built, that is going to be used for storage with the flexibility of being turned into a workshop(type:unspecified) in the future.

Potential building materials:

'''roof'''
* {{Q|Q1432769}} - forms &quot;waves&quot;

'''walls'''
* {{Q|Q372852}} - for a temporary building material that is planned to be covered by something to prevent it from interacting with the humidity of the environment.

The type of construction:
* The roof may be a sloping roof

=== Questions/Feedback about this example project can be added here by participants/students ===

== See Also ==
* [[School:Architecture|School of Architecture]]
* [[Wikipedia: Landscaping]]


[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Architecture]]
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== Building Construction: Means &amp; Methods ==
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common - design, financial, and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structure collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

Building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design &amp; build and design-build bridging. 

Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square metre (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential (as well as all other types of construction and manufactured homes) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here.

The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduce construction waste.

== Construction of Buildings Foundation ==
There are several foundation types we are using in constructions such as pile foundation, raft foundation, pad foundation, combined footing, rubble foundation and spread footing. The selection of foundation type depends on the soil condition and the load about to apply on it. We commonly use pile foundations where apply heavy load such as several stories building and where the soil bearing capacity is very poor like backfill areas, marshy land areas and in sandy areas. For normal houses we use rubble works with pad foundation type. A column foundations we use spread footing type.In any building industry,foundation details is an essential factor in consideration.

== Wood Construction ==
* Timber framing
* Wood furniture restoration
* Wood Coating
* Wood Layering
* Wood Tiles
* Wood Floor Boards

== Concrete &amp; Reinforced Concrete ==
* [[Wikipedia: Reinforced concrete]]
This concrete is termed as RCC since along with the concrete reinforcement is also present. There are various grade of concrete used based on the building load. The grades of concrete start from M15 to M40 and special grade can be of M60,M80. The mix grade can be of proportion of coarse sand/M-sand+cement &amp; slag/fly ash + 10mm down aggregate+ 20mm aggregate + water + admixtures.These trial mixes are designed &amp; tested in labs for 07 days and 28 days to check the strength to be achieved based on the grade of the concrete. Once the trial mix design gets approved the same design can be used at sites. 
The common equipments used for mixing of above said ingredients are:
* weigh batcher+concrete drum mixer operated electrically or by diesel 
* batching plants of capacity 0.5 cum, 1.0 cum, 2.0 cum or 3.0cum
As we are discussing about RCC, we should discuss about Formwork also.
Regarding formwork there are two types:
* Conventional formwork
* Modern day formwork 

:1. Conventional Formwork:
:In this system 
:* shuttering plates 
:* planks/plywood(commercial or marine)(8mm,10mm,12mm,20mm,25mm thick)for sides,bottoms are used
:* to erect and support this formwork- timber, adjustable props, side alignment props,cup-lock system, table form system,etc.are used.
:* Before the formwork is ready for receiving the reinforcement the surface of the formwork will be oiled which will act as stripping agent while stripping.
:* Once all the reinforcement placing and tying works are completed, the alignment and level check is done.
:* After obtaining the checking clearance, concrete is placed.

:2. System Formwork:
:Following are the systems in the modern day: 
:* self climbing or slip formwork
:* Mivan/Pascal formwork
:* Proper preparatory works are to be carried out since once the erection of formwork starts, the same will be moving up and up and will be difficult to rectify if any defects observed and also it is a continuous process.To erect and support this formwork-adjustable props, side alignment props,etc.are used.
:* Before the formwork is ready for receiving the reinforcement the surface of the formwork will be oiled which will act as stripping agent while stripping.
:* Once all the reinforcement placing and tying works are completed, the alignment and level check is done.
:* After obtaining the checking clearance, concrete is placed. 
:* The concrete used in these type of formwork, a highly flowable concrete is used keeping the grade of concrete similar to the normal concrete. 
 
The mix concrete produced by the above methods can be transported by wheel barrows, transit mixers(of capacities 1.0cum,3.0cum,6.0cum,7.0cum)and placed in the confined conventional formwork either by manual or pumping means. For pumping of concrete to various depths,heights and distances the most common equipments used are concrete pumps,boom placers,tower cranes and concrete buckets.

After placing of concrete in the confined formwork, the concrete should be vibrated either by manual or vibrators with vibrator needles and tamping the sides with the help of wooden tampers for concrete to flow to all corners and also to remove the entrapped air bubbles. With this process the entire concrete placed will become dense and no honey-combing are seen once the formwork is stripped down. 

While placing the concrete, a set of cubes for 07 days/28 days are casted, which will be tested in the lab for checking the strength of concrete and comparing to the design mix strength. Based on the achieved strength for 07 days, the time period for de-stripping of formwork is fixed and proper supporting to be kept till the curing period and 28 days.

== Steel and Composite Structures ==
* [[Wikipedia: Steel building]]
Steel Buildings:
These are one type of buildings out of other type like RCC, masonry buildings etc.
These are mostly predominant in the industrial and commercial industry like industrial sheds.
The common components are mainly like foundations with foundation bolts, Vertical columns, trusses, purlins, side sheeting, roof sheeting etc.
In the modern day technology, usage of PEB(Pre-engineered building) structures is on the rise. 
These structures can be erected and completed very fastly, as they are fabricated at ground and erected. Round the clock work can be carried out by taking proper safety measures.
These structures can be used for storages, manufacturing units, logistics, etc.
These structures are more safer than concrete buildings from earthquakes as damages are very minimal.
Nowadays more and more residential buildings are being constructed as steel buildings as there structural life span is comparatively more.
Even with these structures, the environment is protected as the generation of construction debris is less and can be recycled.

== Finishing Materials ==

=== Exterior finishing materials ===
The common exterior finishing materials used are:
# Paints
# Natural stones-granite,marble,etc.ceramics tiles
# Textures
# Glass
# Aluminium sheeting,ACP
# Glass Fibre sheets
# Roof tiles
# Wood/timber

These materials are used as per the availability within the locality unless these are to be specially procured.

=== Interior finishing materials ===
The common interior finishing materials used are:
# Paints
# Natural stones - granite, marble, etc.
# Textures
# Glass
# Aluminium sheeting
# Glass Fibre sheets
# Ceramic/vitrified/mosaic tiles
# Wood/timber
# Gypboards

These materials are used as per the availability within the locality unless these are to be specially procured.

== Waterproofing, Thermal &amp; Moisture Control ==
* [[Wikipedia: Insulation]]

== Openings ==
* [[Wikipedia: Door]]
* [[Wikipedia: Windows]]
Door and window openings are part of a finishing aspect of a building element. In a door opening, the standard dimension of a door is usually 2100mm by 900mm. In this regard, the opening will share same dimension with the door and the lintel thickness allowance by the both sides, usually 225mm.

Window is a part of a building element which allows the passage of light and ventilation in to a building. It is usually dimensioned 600mm by 600mm,900mm by 600mm 1200mm by 1200mm,1200mm by 1800mm, 1200mm by 2100mm etc.

== Fixtures &amp; Furnitures ==

== Building Systems ==

Most of the construction systems become from the material that can be obtained in the job areas.

When these resources were exhausted, new industrialized materials was brought in and also to permit bigger and heavier construction.

== Landscaping ==

== Real examples of building process ==
Work in progress. Building materials will be analyzed.

This is a real example for a planned structure that is going to be built, that is going to be used for storage with the flexibility of being turned into a workshop(type:unspecified) in the future.

Potential building materials:

'''roof'''
* {{Q|Q1432769}} - forms &quot;waves&quot;

'''walls'''
* {{Q|Q372852}} - for a temporary building material that is planned to be covered by something to prevent it from interacting with the humidity of the environment.

The type of construction:
* The roof may be a sloping roof

=== Questions/Feedback about this example project can be added here by participants/students ===

== See Also ==
* [[School:Architecture|School of Architecture]]
* [[Wikipedia: Landscaping]]


[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Architecture]]
[[Category:Pages moved from Wikibooks]]</text>
      <sha1>141j5g7c7jh8gd60axoi22arzbgdf7e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Jtneill</title>
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      <text bytes="46106" sha1="fjjytvldyny3qa4dmyy0u4yxxiy8045" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{Out of town}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Long wikibreak|image=Leaf_1_web.jpg|[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]|mid-Jan, 2012.}} --&gt;
{{{{TALKPAGENAME}}/Header}}  {{TOCright}}

== Your feedback is welcome at [[User talk:Username142857]] ==

Dear my mentor, I believe we have already seen [[User:Username142857]] making too many non-Wikiversity questions at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/MathXplore]] and [[Wikiversity talk:Custodianship/Archive 6]]. In the beginning, I answered them one by one as part of demonstrating my competency to answer questions as a custodian candidate (and they were somewhat related to my global contributions) and courtesy to discussion participants. However, by facing [[special:diff/2631774]] and [[special:diff/2618170]] (editing discussion archives, re-opening closed discussions), I started to believe that we should bring an end to their excessive non-Wikiversity usage of Wikiversity (talk) namespaces. According to [[:w:User talk:Username142857]] (especially [[:w:special:diff/1073391896]]), [[User:Username142857]] is evaluated as {{tq|the other editors are tired to waste their time to read and answer your non-useful edits.}} and I think they are doing the similar thing at Wikiversity. Our community may have limited tolerance for such behavior. If you had any experience of handling such issues in the past, your feedback may be helpful to allow [[User:Username142857]] to improve their behavior. Thank you for your attention and mentoring. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 9 June 2024 (UTC)
: {{ping|MathXplore}} Thanks for the heads up. Sorry for slow response. I'm recovering from COVID, but on way back. Thankyou for your very patient, clear, and supportive feedback on Username142857's talk page which, along with Mikeu, seems to have communicated the concerns and hopefully lead to a change/improvement in behaviour. What a great example of handling challenging behaviour courteously. Fingers crossed. Keep well. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:39, 22 June 2024 (UTC)

== [[:b:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Free will and neuroscience]] ==

Hello, can this be related to your project? Should this be imported here? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 July 2024 (UTC)
: Sorry, the page has been deleted, should we request temporary restoration for import, or should we just ask the author to resubmit to Wikiversity? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:29, 30 July 2024 (UTC)
::Thank-you for pointing this out. Yes, it does look like one of my students' editing. It is a little puzzling how the user ended up on Wikibooks. It is OK that that the wikibooks page has been deleted because the user also appears to be underway here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Free will and neuroscience]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:53, 30 July 2024 (UTC)

== [[Template:Subst:ME/BCS]] ==

Hello, should this template be kept for your project? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:42, 31 July 2024 (UTC)

:Yes, please - but it could be moved from Template into a subpage of [[Motivation and emotion]]. Note that we are actively using the template at the moment to help build out the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024]] pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:43, 1 August 2024 (UTC)

== [[:File:Rejection sensitivity chart.webp]] ==

One of your students uploaded this image to Commons as part of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rejection sensitivity]]. Unfortunately, it's meaningless AI-generated sludge. Can this image be removed from the chapter to allow it to be deleted from Commons?

(You may want to have a word with your students about AI-generated content; I think some of the text in this chapter was generated by ChatGPT as well.) [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:52, 6 August 2024 (UTC)
: {{ping|Omphalographer}} Great, thanks for picking this up and letting me know. Yes please, delete. I've given the student a heads-up here: [[User talk:Yonis Yousufzai]]. We're covering genAI in classes this week {{smile}}. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 6 August 2024 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bots/Status#Leaderbot]] ==

Hi, is there a chance you can approve this bot request (or otherwise let me know if there are any issues)? Thanks in advance. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 15:03, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

== VDT - U3126684 chapter ==

Hi James ! I saw you added the hanging indent which is amazing, thank you so much! However, I had a few references missing and I tried to add them in but they didn't keep the required APA formatting. I deleted the template and reused the hanging indent template but it won't keep any formatting. Can you please help me fix it? 
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion - Wikiversity]] [[User:U3126684|U3126684]] ([[User talk:U3126684|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3126684|contribs]]) 11:16, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

:James, I figured it out! I was just missing the &quot;}}&quot; at the end of the text... all solved! [[User:U3126684|U3126684]] ([[User talk:U3126684|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3126684|contribs]]) 11:31, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

== Your feedback may be needed at [[User talk:Tule-hog]] ==

Hello, user:Dan Polansky is currently communicating with a participant on this talk page. As Dan's mentor, I thought you may want to provide feedback so I came here for a notice. ({{ping|Guy vandegrift}} Your feedback is also welcome). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:20, 7 October 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks for bringing this to my attention.  I will keep up with further developments. [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 00:07, 8 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[General health and well-being]] ==
This page was in the proposed-deletion state for over 3 months, with no opposition. Should I feel free to delete the page? I guess it seemed to be a good idea back in 2011 (at least as a stub to get things started), but no one expanded it into anything really useful during all these years. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:24, 11 October 2024 (UTC)

:Hi Dan - thanks for checking - yes, it can go - I've removed the one incoming link to this page. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:39, 11 October 2024 (UTC)

== Enquiry about Correct Setup of Wikiversity? ==
Hi James, 
I just had a few questions regarding my Setup on Wikiversity:

1. We are asked to enable the Visual Editor. Have I done this correctly? Or how do I do it if I have not?

2. Have I chosen a book chapter and inserted my name correctly?

3. There isn’t a discussion forum page on our UCLearn for me to comment on, for the assessment, so where should I comment?

Thank you, I look forward to hearing back from you.
[[User:Hcoad|Hcoad]] ([[User talk:Hcoad|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hcoad|contribs]]) 14:27, 2 August 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Hcoad|Hcoad]]:
:# To access the Visual Editor, use &quot;Create&quot; for the first edit on a page, or &quot;Edit&quot; thereafter
:# Sign-up looks good
:# You can create a new discussion thread on UCLearn about a topic of interest or respond to existing threads such as &quot;What do you really want to learn about?&quot;
:-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:34, 2 August 2025 (UTC)

== Problem with curator ==

Reading above, may i address you as James? If so, hello James, i have a problem with a curator and would ask if you are a contact to talk about it. If not, sorry to bother you. Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:19, 10 October 2025 (UTC)

:Hi Harold,
:Thanks for getting in touch.
:Sorry about the teething issues in getting underway with your contributions to Wikiversity.
:Let's hopefully have a constructive discussion here, which you've initiated: [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Contest removal of article]]
:Sincerely,
:James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:38, 11 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hi James, 
::Thank you very much for sending me the article text, I really appriciate that. If not to much to ask, could you also send me the template? Template:Condensed matter physics see: User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size.
::Did you read the disucussion with Dan Polansky? I think its rather weird. I answered all his questions truthfully, since i have nothing to hide. (see my user page) And than he started some trivia about the double slit expiriment, went on without listening. Like the article was a sort of explosive that must be removed ASAP. That is not the way a curator should behave (my opinion). 
::I could acctually use a mentor physics to avoid mistakes in the future.
::I know both my articles have flaws but i can fix that in time.
::Do you maybe have suggestions?
::Last but not least, thanks again for the time you took to help me !!! Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:14, 12 October 2025 (UTC)
: @James: To reduce or eliminate further risk that I am abusing my curator priviledges in relation to suspected copyright violation (I don't think I am, but my point of view can be skewed), I can start tagging material for copyright violation using a template (does not require curator privileges). That should address concerns? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:01, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] As long as you remove the insulting (in my opinion) remarks on both articles and remove the tag -since it does not violate '''[[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC-BY-SA 4.0]] license'''- i will be satisfied. As i explained, Wikipedia use a free-to-use policy. Also could you please clarify this code: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:No thanks|no thanks]]|pg=User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size|url=&lt;nowiki&gt;{{{url}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • . After this is resolved i'm willing to consider this complaint closed. Maybe we can start over with a new and different conversation, since I strongly believe in AGF.  You have a way much longer experience on Wikiversity than I do, so perhaps you could help me in a friendly and constructive way? It seems we have a lot in common and I shall gladly listen to any comments.
::CC @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:16, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::: The page [[User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size]] currently features multiple sentences from a CC-BY-SA source without using quotation marks. My determination is that the page shows copyright violation (failure to ''attribute'') of CC-BY-SA and should therefore be deleted.
::: If you, James, remove the copyright violation tagging, I will understand it as you taking responsibility for a possible copyright violation and I will probably disengage (or do I have a duty to take more pains and try to override your assessment?) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:31, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::: As for &quot;As i explained, Wikipedia use a free-to-use policy&quot;: that seems to be a misunderstanding or too vague understanding; Wikipedia uses CC-BY-SA copyright license, which requires proper ''attribution'' of authorship, which could have been done in the edit summary that created the article, but was not done. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:35, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] It has already been added, as you would have seen upon checking. I would still appreciate a response to the other points I mentioned earlier, if you are willing to continue the discussion. If not, your choise. CC:@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Cheers[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:08, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
: James, as my mentor in my role of a custodian, if you want me to do something, or if you have a recommendation for me, please let me know on my talk page. I am struggling to figure out how to navigate these waters. You can also use email if it seems better from some perspective. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 10:21, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] Why not take a step back? I offered you a solution and a possibility to cooperate instead of continuing a conflict. I still believe that working together is more productive than arguing over small details. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:26, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
:::The discussion at this talk page ended not very fruitfully.
:::Pitty, i really tried to make piece.
:::Yet I am not the only one complainting about Dan’s behaviour.
::: 
:::Anything I can do (or you) ?
:::Am I free to remove remarks and/or tags?
:::I dont want to end up in an editwar.
::: 
:::Sorry to have asked so much of your time [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 15:54, 13 October 2025 (UTC)

Thanks, both. May I suggest:
* {{ping|Harold Foppele}}: Any text you don't write yourself needs appropriate attribution or removal, otherwise it runs the risk of copyright violation. For example, this message appears on each edit source screen underneath the edit summary box: &quot;Do not copy text from other websites without permission. It will be deleted.&quot; If text is copied from Wikipedia it needs to be acknowledged as such because it is licensed under CC-by-SA which allows re-use but requires acknowledgement. Such acknowledgement could be made in the edit summary when the contribution is first made. If not, then the next best could be to put quotation marks around copied text and a link to the source(s) of the text.
* {{ping|Dan Polansky}}: Appreciate your administrative work. Let's try to AGF and work constructively with new users who are learning how to contribute. Wikiversity is a learning environment.
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:42, 13 October 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Thank you very much. I hope it will work out since Dan does not respond, to me that is. Could you find time to look at the revised [[User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size]] i made additions to it, but since it is a mix of WP, other sources and OR, it is alomost impossible to keep quoting. So i made a general intro. Is that enough? Also 99% of the [[]] refer directly to WP since WV does not have most of the words/pages. I also recreated the template so that it shows all original text/items. The new section ==Tunneling== is not cited yet, but it wiil be when I have time. Can I remove the tags myself? Thanks again [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:21, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::Looks like a solid chunk is copied from Wikipedia: https://www.copyscape.com/view.php?o=4829&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMesoscopic_physics&amp;t=1760433515&amp;s=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikiversity.org%2Fwiki%2FUser%3AHarold_Foppele%2FQuantum_A_Matter_Of_Size&amp;w=66&amp;i=1&amp;r=10
::without appropriate acknowledgement.
::Some ways to deal with this appropriately include:
::# Acknowledge the source in the edit summary when content is added to the page
::# Using quotation marks and citations to indicate the source of any content which you haven't authored yourself
::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:02, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::The &quot;chunk&quot; is correct :) I took that since it fits perfect to the article. At the top of the page I quoted:
:::{Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Mesoscopic_physics|Mesoscopic physics]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
:::[[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/|License CC-BY-SA 4.0]]
:::In Edit summary: The first section of this article is copied from Wikipedia &quot;Mesoscopic physics&quot;
:::Is that sufficient ?
:::I did cite almost everything what is not so much requested in Wikiversity as far as i found out, but is a first requirement in Wikipedia.
:::Is it OK if I remove the tags ? Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:51, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
::::I think it would be more transparent and demonstrate greater academic integrity to use quotation marks for text which is copied from elsewhere, especially because there was no appropriate edit summary when the text was added to the page.
::::[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AHarold_Foppele%2FQuantum_A_Matter_Of_Size&amp;diff=2760582&amp;oldid=2760574 Example of how this might be done].
::::I don't suggest removing the copyright tag until copied text is more clearly quoted and cited and there is consensus that it [[wikt:pass muster|passes muster]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::Thank you SO MUCH !!  I had no idea that a &lt;blockquote existed nor what it does. This is the first time i used a Wikipedia copy into Wikiversity. So a simple explanation, as you gave me now, would have prevented all this. :) I changed the layout a bit to make it view nicer. Is this required also for my own publications on Wikipedia? Thanks again!! and a goodnight to you [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:28, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::I decided to re-write the copyrighted text in my own words. It feels better this way, what do you think? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:07, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::Great, I think that makes a big difference to rewrite in your own words. I've removed the copyright tag.
:::::::Let me know if I can do anything else as you go along. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:03, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::: The page still contains copyright violation. I am starting to track problems at [[User:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]]. I will disengage from Harold Foppele; this is not being productive and can lead to my harm and thereby harm to the English Wikiversity. I have seen this kind of people elsewhere: I explained a class/type of a problem to the person and pointed to an example for clarity and the person corrected just the single item I gave as an example. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:17, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] Since you want to take this personally instead of having a civilized conversation, I will not engage in a mud-throwing contest or labeling people as “this kind of people&quot;. I saw your problem report and I seriously question your objectivity as a science debater. You took ONE paragraph from an article—a paragraph that had been modified (as your question mark even shows)—plus a scientific debate over a previously accepted article on Wikipedia. You completely ignored the accepted contributions I have made to Wikipedia. Yet this alone is enough for you to request that a contributor be blocked.
:::::::::What do I gain from spending hours and hours doing research for a new article? Hours and hours searching for proper references? Hours writing and rewriting the text? How much do I get paid? Nothing. How much honor or credit do I receive? None. So what &quot;kind of people&quot; am I? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:21, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::: DFX. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:26, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::Exactly my point. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:19, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold]] and [[User:Dan Polansky|Dan]] — I appreciate your considerations and communications. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:51, 15 October 2025 (UTC)

== Peer review ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hello James, I hope you are doing well. The 2 articles I wrote are now ready to be published. Is there some kind of peer review possible? I tried to find some help at [[Portal:Particle physics]] but all data there is very old. How can we move forward from this? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:52, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:Perhaps try [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] - that's the general way to communicate with English Wikiversity users/editors. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 17 October 2025 (UTC)

== Hello James, I need your help. ==

Could join the discussion with us in [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Concern regarding curator conduct User:Dan Polansky]]

We would like to solicit your input on this matter.  [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 03:54, 17 October 2025 (UTC)

== Quantum ==

Hello James, If you have time could you lease look at [[Quantum]]. An essay like page with simple information, that might attract students. I Know its not your field, but maybe it appeals to you. Thanks, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:39, 18 October 2025 (UTC)

== ShakespeareFan00 ==

Goodevening, please, if you have time, take a look at the edits made by this user. A few hundred in 2 days ! Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 20:35, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

== When is a quote or blockquote needed? ==

Hi James, I hope you are doing well. I did wrote some articles and parts off them at Wikipedia. If i want to use parts of it at Wikiversity do i still need to quote that parts? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:19, 2 November 2025 (UTC)

:Basically, if you didn't author text which is being added, then the genesis of the text needs to be made clear (e.g, edit summary, quotation etc.) It is also possible to import pages (e.g., from Wikipedia) which brings in the full edit history. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:38, 3 November 2025 (UTC)

== Publishing transcripts ==

Hi James, Is it allowed to publish a transcript in Wikiversity as per my example at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]]. If not, then I remove the page ofcourse. I think it could be nice if I edit it to make it easy accessible in various Wikipages.
But again, if its not allowed, i remove it. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:28, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

== User:Dan Polansky ==

@Jtneill , Hi James, You are a curator/bureaucrat, if i'm not mistaken. Please look at: [[User:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]] I feel outright insulted and ask you (if you can) to put an end to it. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:59, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
: I wrote: &quot;The user account created articles in the subject of quantum mechanics that use wiki-voice and do not state the author. Since it is very likely that he does not understand quantum mechanics as per evidence in the revision history of his user talk page, it is also likely that they contain countless errors. The articles are presented to the reader as valid referenced content, not as one person's exercise in who-knows-what. Preventing the user account from creating new pages and moving all his articles to user space would address the issue.&quot;
: I think it is accurate. By now, we have enough evidence I think that the user account is a troll account, an intentional disruptor. There are multiple behavioral signs, both in Wikipedia and in Wikiversity.
: I propose an indef block of the user account. An alternative is not to feed into this troll account. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::Well well here we go again [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:18, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::: I opened [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Indefinite block for Harold_Foppele]]. I fear it will be in vain. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:26, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::::You are allowed to hope [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:42, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

== Moving to personal namespace ==

What are the policies or customs on Wikiversity for moving pages to personal userspace? Isn't there a risk that Wikiversity will turn into a blogging platform where many users will cultivate pages in their userspace and the outside world will not benefit from it?

I see moving to ns user as a frequent suggestion in Requests for deletion (RFD). I would understand moving to ns Draft, which is clearly defined and there is a chance that the resource will then get into the main ns, thus serving the community. I would understand the suggestion to move to another wikiproject, where the text will serve the community. But I don't really understand the frequent moves to personal ns. Since it's in the RFD, it should either be kept or deleted. If someone contributes to Wikiversity, they automatically agree to its policies and also to the fact that they don't own the pages and someone can put them up for deletion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:36, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

I personally don't need a free website to host my pages. How would I get rid of the unfinished [[Pomology]] meta course if it was moved to my NS? ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#c-Dan_Polansky-20251121091100-Juandev-20251120220900 Moving it to my own NS is suggested in RFD]). I'm putting it in the Request for deletion because, even though I started it, it looks like other editors had significant input there. Will I have the right to request speedy deletion if the pages are moved to my user ns?

I think this tactic of moving to personal space is poorly thought out, but it has become the norm.

Is there any guideline or discussion from before? If something appears in a deletion request, the majority decides that it should be moved to user ns, how can the person in question defend themselves that they don't want it in their own ns? It seems the community is pressuring the original author to agree to deletion. It seems that the user ns is an untouchable territory into which the community has the right to throw whatever it thinks from the main ns. So why aren't those pages deleted when the community decides that they don't belong in the main ns? --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:30, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

{{ping|Juandev}} I replied on your talk page. But here's another version: Personally, in general, I try to keep my notes etc. in user space. Then if I have something more developed to share and collaborate on, then main space. Draft could be helpful to keep main space tidy, but is very quiet/unused, so in reality most drafts are in main space. But if the content is dubious, underdeveloped, lacking citation/peer review etc. then delete, or user space if it could still be developed. That's roughly how I see it. But everyone has a slightly different view/preference, so discuss to develop consensus. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:48, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

== Ninefold Resonance Theory ==
Dear Jtneill, I noticed that when you deleted [[Ninefold Resonance Theory]], you accidentally deleted the article in my own user space as well. However, I got the impression that most users felt that it should be allowed to exist in my own user space. I thought long and hard about my theory and I'm disappointed that it's gone now... Could you move the article back to my own user space, so not in the main space? I look forward to hearing from you! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:22, 28 November 2025 (UTC)

:Nevermind. I will move all my ideas to everybodywiki.com. 😄 Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:36, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
::Could you please e-mail me the source code of the deleted page? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:42, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]]: Apologies, the user page version was accidentally deleted. It has now been restored. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you! ☺️ Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:58, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
:::All pages in my user space have been moved to EverybodyWiki. Could you perhaps delete all the pages with the {{tl|speedy}} template on it? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 07:08, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
::::[[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]]: The main space redirects and all your user sub-pages have been deleted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 1 December 2025 (UTC)
:::::Thank you! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 08:24, 1 December 2025 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

{{ping|Jtneill}} May I draw your attantion to this!
==== 6 December 2025 ====

* cur[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2778412 prev] &lt;bdi&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;oldid=2778412 13:15, 6 December 2025]&lt;/bdi&gt; [[User:Revolving Doormat|&lt;bdi&gt;Revolving Doormat&lt;/bdi&gt;]] [[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]  75,351 bytes +279  request speedy delete under CSD1 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;action=edit&amp;undoafter=2777042&amp;undo=2778412 undo][[Special:Thanks/2778412|thank]] [[Special:Tags|Tag]]: [[Wikiversity:VisualEditor|Visual edit: Switched]]

[[User:Revolving Doormat|&lt;bdi&gt;Revolving Doormat&lt;/bdi&gt;]] account created today 
at the same time as = &lt;bdi&gt;~2025-38873-79&lt;/bdi&gt; =

So I assume they are all the same.
Am I allowed to remove the delete template by myself?
Greetings [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 16:41, 6 December 2025 (UTC)

:We are not the same person. I came here from an AfD on Wikipedia and your page creation ban here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard/Incidents#c-Ldm1954-20251205133800-Requesting_page_creation_block_of_User:Harold_Foppele
:The temp user already identified that I notified WP about the same activity on WV, and that brought them here. [[User:Revolving Doormat|Revolving Doormat]] ([[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]) 17:08, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
::Its so coincidental that you all share the same IP range isn't it? Using an empty account? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:19, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
:::The user already identified their WP account and my WP user id is the same one I have here. I don't believe you have access to our IP addresses, but but based on their WP biography, that would also be impossible. I will not be engaging with you further. [[User:Revolving Doormat|Revolving Doormat]] ([[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]) 17:25, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
::::What you believe or not is up to you [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:41, 6 December 2025 (UTC)

== User Dan Polansky ==

I want to draw your attention to the edits (mainly copy/paste) by [[user:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] today. Still trying to act as curator? They continue their previous harassment. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:07, 12 December 2025 (UTC)

== Happy New Year, Jtneill! ==
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--&gt;&quot; class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
[[File:Everlasting Fireworks looped.gif|left|x173px]][[File:Happy new year 01.svg|x173px|right]]
{{Paragraph break}}
{{Center|{{resize|179%|'''''[[New Year|Happy New Year]]!'''''}}}}
'''Jtneill''',&lt;br /&gt;Have a prosperous, productive and enjoyable [[New Year]], and thanks for your contributions to Wikiversity.
&lt;br /&gt;[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:10, 2 January 2026 (UTC)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''{{resize|88%|Send New Year cheer by adding {{tls|Happy New Year fireworks}} to user talk pages.}}''
{{clear}}&lt;!-- From template:Happy New Year fireworks --&gt;

== Please delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]] ==

Reason: This is a request by the author (major contributor). Custodians don't have interface admin rights, so custodians cannot delete this page. Bureaucrats can delete this page by temporarily adding themselves to the interface admin user group ([[User_talk:Jtneill/Archive/2024#Please_delete_MediaWiki:Wikidebate.js]]). Thank you for your attention. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 09:11, 11 February 2026 (UTC)

== DELETE request ==

Please DELETE [[Creating Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]] to [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]. I created the article with an erroneous name. I will recreate it with the name I want. Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 20:15, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:12, 13 February 2026 (UTC)

== Archiving ==

Hi and hello @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I did some archiving from Colloquium and RCA. If you have time that I'm on the right track? It where only a few, so if I did wrong, its easily undone, otherwise I continue as per request. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 12 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] Please remember to user &lt;nowiki&gt;{{archive|Wikiversity:Colloquium}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; instead of &lt;nowiki&gt;{{archive}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; so that people who find themselves in the archives know where to go if they are unsure of anything. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 07:12, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] I have literally no idea what you are talking about. So elaborate please. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:53, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::Ahhh I see what you mean. Strange that you comment on MY edits only. NONE of the archive templates at WC archive have that. Did you overlook that?[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:13, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::That’s why the discussion parameter is red linked, I am working on that. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:22, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::Well, you could have said that instead. I think it's a bit overdone, since the page title is reads already Archive. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:26, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::New users will click on the red linked, which brings them to create the talk page, which is not watched so they won’t receive a response to their question. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:15, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::That is true [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 February 2026 (UTC)

== Email ==

I sent you an email about a private abuse filter, feel free to take a look. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:39, 15 April 2026 (UTC)

== AI slop, ownership, and wikilawyering. ==

Using AI images is worse than no images. Your constant reverting of reasonable edits removing images you prompted on pages you wrote would be considered [[w:wp:OWN]]ership on Wikipedia; even if there is no general guideline on Wikiversity the spirit of not having the final say because just you made the page is applicable to all Wikimedia wikis. Reverting a reasonable edit because it lacks an image seems like [[w:wp:WIKILAWYER]]ing— I don’t know if edit summaries are ''required'' here, but I doubt it, and on most wikis they are simply recommended. Not having one doesn’t invalidate the edit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:27, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I understand that you don't like many AI images because you consider them slop. My view is that some of these AI images can be useful for educational purposes.
:I understand that you think an alternative or no image is better than some AI images. My view is that some AI images are better than no image and are either useful in addition to alternative images or more useful than some alternatives.
:May I suggest deciding first on Commons whether to keep an image, rather than removing from Wikiversity and then nominating for deletion on Commons because of no use.
:I have no interest in edit warring. I'll invite [[WV:RCA]] to review your recent edits. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:20, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Greetings,

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years.

This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required.

The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run.

In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:32, 28 April 2026 (UTC) &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&amp;oldid=30471751 --&gt;

== Thoughts about Wikinews closure ==

I think Wikiversity could bring in Wikinews users possibly. Thoughts? @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 23:05, 13 May 2026 (UTC)

:Welcome. Sorry for the loss of Wikinews. I hope WN editors can find their way into contributing to WMF sister projects most aligned with their interests and skills, including Wikiversity. For me, the key here is alignment with [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. It may take some time to work out what's possible. As @[[User:Koavf|koavf]] suggests, a good place to start could be building on [[:Category:Journalism]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:22, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 23:23, 13 May 2026 (UTC)

== Hi. Would it be ok to post on your talk page using &quot;AI&quot;/LLMs? ==

Hello! Would it be ok if I posted some future messages that were generated by an &quot;AI&quot;/AI/LLM? If yes, would you prefer the generated message to be ie. max 100 words, less words or the talk message to include both original and generated message? Any other preferences/requirements? So far, 1 user has responded to this type of inquiry. They prefer 100 words max of generated talk page message. Best wishes [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>fjjytvldyny3qa4dmyy0u4yxxiy8045</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816511</id>
      <parentid>2816496</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T02:09:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hi. Would it be ok to post on your talk page using &quot;AI&quot;/LLMs? */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
      <origin>2816511</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="46540" sha1="7jwauz8hrm8dc1s5pkcvuzlv5g5ogvo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- {{Out of town}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Long wikibreak|image=Leaf_1_web.jpg|[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]]|mid-Jan, 2012.}} --&gt;
{{{{TALKPAGENAME}}/Header}}  {{TOCright}}

== Your feedback is welcome at [[User talk:Username142857]] ==

Dear my mentor, I believe we have already seen [[User:Username142857]] making too many non-Wikiversity questions at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/MathXplore]] and [[Wikiversity talk:Custodianship/Archive 6]]. In the beginning, I answered them one by one as part of demonstrating my competency to answer questions as a custodian candidate (and they were somewhat related to my global contributions) and courtesy to discussion participants. However, by facing [[special:diff/2631774]] and [[special:diff/2618170]] (editing discussion archives, re-opening closed discussions), I started to believe that we should bring an end to their excessive non-Wikiversity usage of Wikiversity (talk) namespaces. According to [[:w:User talk:Username142857]] (especially [[:w:special:diff/1073391896]]), [[User:Username142857]] is evaluated as {{tq|the other editors are tired to waste their time to read and answer your non-useful edits.}} and I think they are doing the similar thing at Wikiversity. Our community may have limited tolerance for such behavior. If you had any experience of handling such issues in the past, your feedback may be helpful to allow [[User:Username142857]] to improve their behavior. Thank you for your attention and mentoring. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 03:21, 9 June 2024 (UTC)
: {{ping|MathXplore}} Thanks for the heads up. Sorry for slow response. I'm recovering from COVID, but on way back. Thankyou for your very patient, clear, and supportive feedback on Username142857's talk page which, along with Mikeu, seems to have communicated the concerns and hopefully lead to a change/improvement in behaviour. What a great example of handling challenging behaviour courteously. Fingers crossed. Keep well. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:39, 22 June 2024 (UTC)

== [[:b:Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Free will and neuroscience]] ==

Hello, can this be related to your project? Should this be imported here? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 July 2024 (UTC)
: Sorry, the page has been deleted, should we request temporary restoration for import, or should we just ask the author to resubmit to Wikiversity? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:29, 30 July 2024 (UTC)
::Thank-you for pointing this out. Yes, it does look like one of my students' editing. It is a little puzzling how the user ended up on Wikibooks. It is OK that that the wikibooks page has been deleted because the user also appears to be underway here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Free will and neuroscience]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:53, 30 July 2024 (UTC)

== [[Template:Subst:ME/BCS]] ==

Hello, should this template be kept for your project? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:42, 31 July 2024 (UTC)

:Yes, please - but it could be moved from Template into a subpage of [[Motivation and emotion]]. Note that we are actively using the template at the moment to help build out the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024]] pages. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:43, 1 August 2024 (UTC)

== [[:File:Rejection sensitivity chart.webp]] ==

One of your students uploaded this image to Commons as part of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Rejection sensitivity]]. Unfortunately, it's meaningless AI-generated sludge. Can this image be removed from the chapter to allow it to be deleted from Commons?

(You may want to have a word with your students about AI-generated content; I think some of the text in this chapter was generated by ChatGPT as well.) [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:52, 6 August 2024 (UTC)
: {{ping|Omphalographer}} Great, thanks for picking this up and letting me know. Yes please, delete. I've given the student a heads-up here: [[User talk:Yonis Yousufzai]]. We're covering genAI in classes this week {{smile}}. Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 6 August 2024 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bots/Status#Leaderbot]] ==

Hi, is there a chance you can approve this bot request (or otherwise let me know if there are any issues)? Thanks in advance. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 15:03, 15 September 2024 (UTC)

== VDT - U3126684 chapter ==

Hi James ! I saw you added the hanging indent which is amazing, thank you so much! However, I had a few references missing and I tried to add them in but they didn't keep the required APA formatting. I deleted the template and reused the hanging indent template but it won't keep any formatting. Can you please help me fix it? 
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion|Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Vulnerable dark triad, motivation, and emotion - Wikiversity]] [[User:U3126684|U3126684]] ([[User talk:U3126684|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3126684|contribs]]) 11:16, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

:James, I figured it out! I was just missing the &quot;}}&quot; at the end of the text... all solved! [[User:U3126684|U3126684]] ([[User talk:U3126684|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3126684|contribs]]) 11:31, 3 October 2024 (UTC)

== Your feedback may be needed at [[User talk:Tule-hog]] ==

Hello, user:Dan Polansky is currently communicating with a participant on this talk page. As Dan's mentor, I thought you may want to provide feedback so I came here for a notice. ({{ping|Guy vandegrift}} Your feedback is also welcome). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 06:20, 7 October 2024 (UTC)

:Thanks for bringing this to my attention.  I will keep up with further developments. [[User:Guy vandegrift|Guy vandegrift]] ([[User talk:Guy vandegrift|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Guy vandegrift|contribs]]) 00:07, 8 October 2024 (UTC)

== [[General health and well-being]] ==
This page was in the proposed-deletion state for over 3 months, with no opposition. Should I feel free to delete the page? I guess it seemed to be a good idea back in 2011 (at least as a stub to get things started), but no one expanded it into anything really useful during all these years. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 11:24, 11 October 2024 (UTC)

:Hi Dan - thanks for checking - yes, it can go - I've removed the one incoming link to this page. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 21:39, 11 October 2024 (UTC)

== Enquiry about Correct Setup of Wikiversity? ==
Hi James, 
I just had a few questions regarding my Setup on Wikiversity:

1. We are asked to enable the Visual Editor. Have I done this correctly? Or how do I do it if I have not?

2. Have I chosen a book chapter and inserted my name correctly?

3. There isn’t a discussion forum page on our UCLearn for me to comment on, for the assessment, so where should I comment?

Thank you, I look forward to hearing back from you.
[[User:Hcoad|Hcoad]] ([[User talk:Hcoad|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hcoad|contribs]]) 14:27, 2 August 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Hcoad|Hcoad]]:
:# To access the Visual Editor, use &quot;Create&quot; for the first edit on a page, or &quot;Edit&quot; thereafter
:# Sign-up looks good
:# You can create a new discussion thread on UCLearn about a topic of interest or respond to existing threads such as &quot;What do you really want to learn about?&quot;
:-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:34, 2 August 2025 (UTC)

== Problem with curator ==

Reading above, may i address you as James? If so, hello James, i have a problem with a curator and would ask if you are a contact to talk about it. If not, sorry to bother you. Kind regards, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:19, 10 October 2025 (UTC)

:Hi Harold,
:Thanks for getting in touch.
:Sorry about the teething issues in getting underway with your contributions to Wikiversity.
:Let's hopefully have a constructive discussion here, which you've initiated: [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Contest removal of article]]
:Sincerely,
:James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 22:38, 11 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hi James, 
::Thank you very much for sending me the article text, I really appriciate that. If not to much to ask, could you also send me the template? Template:Condensed matter physics see: User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size.
::Did you read the disucussion with Dan Polansky? I think its rather weird. I answered all his questions truthfully, since i have nothing to hide. (see my user page) And than he started some trivia about the double slit expiriment, went on without listening. Like the article was a sort of explosive that must be removed ASAP. That is not the way a curator should behave (my opinion). 
::I could acctually use a mentor physics to avoid mistakes in the future.
::I know both my articles have flaws but i can fix that in time.
::Do you maybe have suggestions?
::Last but not least, thanks again for the time you took to help me !!! Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:14, 12 October 2025 (UTC)
: @James: To reduce or eliminate further risk that I am abusing my curator priviledges in relation to suspected copyright violation (I don't think I am, but my point of view can be skewed), I can start tagging material for copyright violation using a template (does not require curator privileges). That should address concerns? --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:01, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] As long as you remove the insulting (in my opinion) remarks on both articles and remove the tag -since it does not violate '''[[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC-BY-SA 4.0]] license'''- i will be satisfied. As i explained, Wikipedia use a free-to-use policy. Also could you please clarify this code: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:No thanks|no thanks]]|pg=User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size|url=&lt;nowiki&gt;{{{url}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • . After this is resolved i'm willing to consider this complaint closed. Maybe we can start over with a new and different conversation, since I strongly believe in AGF.  You have a way much longer experience on Wikiversity than I do, so perhaps you could help me in a friendly and constructive way? It seems we have a lot in common and I shall gladly listen to any comments.
::CC @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:16, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::: The page [[User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size]] currently features multiple sentences from a CC-BY-SA source without using quotation marks. My determination is that the page shows copyright violation (failure to ''attribute'') of CC-BY-SA and should therefore be deleted.
::: If you, James, remove the copyright violation tagging, I will understand it as you taking responsibility for a possible copyright violation and I will probably disengage (or do I have a duty to take more pains and try to override your assessment?) --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:31, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::: As for &quot;As i explained, Wikipedia use a free-to-use policy&quot;: that seems to be a misunderstanding or too vague understanding; Wikipedia uses CC-BY-SA copyright license, which requires proper ''attribution'' of authorship, which could have been done in the edit summary that created the article, but was not done. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 09:35, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] It has already been added, as you would have seen upon checking. I would still appreciate a response to the other points I mentioned earlier, if you are willing to continue the discussion. If not, your choise. CC:@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Cheers[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:08, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
: James, as my mentor in my role of a custodian, if you want me to do something, or if you have a recommendation for me, please let me know on my talk page. I am struggling to figure out how to navigate these waters. You can also use email if it seems better from some perspective. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 10:21, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] Why not take a step back? I offered you a solution and a possibility to cooperate instead of continuing a conflict. I still believe that working together is more productive than arguing over small details. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:26, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
:::The discussion at this talk page ended not very fruitfully.
:::Pitty, i really tried to make piece.
:::Yet I am not the only one complainting about Dan’s behaviour.
::: 
:::Anything I can do (or you) ?
:::Am I free to remove remarks and/or tags?
:::I dont want to end up in an editwar.
::: 
:::Sorry to have asked so much of your time [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 15:54, 13 October 2025 (UTC)

Thanks, both. May I suggest:
* {{ping|Harold Foppele}}: Any text you don't write yourself needs appropriate attribution or removal, otherwise it runs the risk of copyright violation. For example, this message appears on each edit source screen underneath the edit summary box: &quot;Do not copy text from other websites without permission. It will be deleted.&quot; If text is copied from Wikipedia it needs to be acknowledged as such because it is licensed under CC-by-SA which allows re-use but requires acknowledgement. Such acknowledgement could be made in the edit summary when the contribution is first made. If not, then the next best could be to put quotation marks around copied text and a link to the source(s) of the text.
* {{ping|Dan Polansky}}: Appreciate your administrative work. Let's try to AGF and work constructively with new users who are learning how to contribute. Wikiversity is a learning environment.
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:42, 13 October 2025 (UTC)

:@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Thank you very much. I hope it will work out since Dan does not respond, to me that is. Could you find time to look at the revised [[User:Harold Foppele/Quantum A Matter Of Size]] i made additions to it, but since it is a mix of WP, other sources and OR, it is alomost impossible to keep quoting. So i made a general intro. Is that enough? Also 99% of the [[]] refer directly to WP since WV does not have most of the words/pages. I also recreated the template so that it shows all original text/items. The new section ==Tunneling== is not cited yet, but it wiil be when I have time. Can I remove the tags myself? Thanks again [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 21:21, 13 October 2025 (UTC)
::Looks like a solid chunk is copied from Wikipedia: https://www.copyscape.com/view.php?o=4829&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FMesoscopic_physics&amp;t=1760433515&amp;s=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikiversity.org%2Fwiki%2FUser%3AHarold_Foppele%2FQuantum_A_Matter_Of_Size&amp;w=66&amp;i=1&amp;r=10
::without appropriate acknowledgement.
::Some ways to deal with this appropriately include:
::# Acknowledge the source in the edit summary when content is added to the page
::# Using quotation marks and citations to indicate the source of any content which you haven't authored yourself
::-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:02, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::The &quot;chunk&quot; is correct :) I took that since it fits perfect to the article. At the top of the page I quoted:
:::{Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Mesoscopic_physics|Mesoscopic physics]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
:::[[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/|License CC-BY-SA 4.0]]
:::In Edit summary: The first section of this article is copied from Wikipedia &quot;Mesoscopic physics&quot;
:::Is that sufficient ?
:::I did cite almost everything what is not so much requested in Wikiversity as far as i found out, but is a first requirement in Wikipedia.
:::Is it OK if I remove the tags ? Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 10:51, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
::::I think it would be more transparent and demonstrate greater academic integrity to use quotation marks for text which is copied from elsewhere, especially because there was no appropriate edit summary when the text was added to the page.
::::[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User%3AHarold_Foppele%2FQuantum_A_Matter_Of_Size&amp;diff=2760582&amp;oldid=2760574 Example of how this might be done].
::::I don't suggest removing the copyright tag until copied text is more clearly quoted and cited and there is consensus that it [[wikt:pass muster|passes muster]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:52, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::Thank you SO MUCH !!  I had no idea that a &lt;blockquote existed nor what it does. This is the first time i used a Wikipedia copy into Wikiversity. So a simple explanation, as you gave me now, would have prevented all this. :) I changed the layout a bit to make it view nicer. Is this required also for my own publications on Wikipedia? Thanks again!! and a goodnight to you [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:28, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
::::::I decided to re-write the copyrighted text in my own words. It feels better this way, what do you think? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 13:07, 14 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::Great, I think that makes a big difference to rewrite in your own words. I've removed the copyright tag.
:::::::Let me know if I can do anything else as you go along. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:03, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::: The page still contains copyright violation. I am starting to track problems at [[User:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]]. I will disengage from Harold Foppele; this is not being productive and can lead to my harm and thereby harm to the English Wikiversity. I have seen this kind of people elsewhere: I explained a class/type of a problem to the person and pointed to an example for clarity and the person corrected just the single item I gave as an example. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:17, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::@[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] Since you want to take this personally instead of having a civilized conversation, I will not engage in a mud-throwing contest or labeling people as “this kind of people&quot;. I saw your problem report and I seriously question your objectivity as a science debater. You took ONE paragraph from an article—a paragraph that had been modified (as your question mark even shows)—plus a scientific debate over a previously accepted article on Wikipedia. You completely ignored the accepted contributions I have made to Wikipedia. Yet this alone is enough for you to request that a contributor be blocked.
:::::::::What do I gain from spending hours and hours doing research for a new article? Hours and hours searching for proper references? Hours writing and rewriting the text? How much do I get paid? Nothing. How much honor or credit do I receive? None. So what &quot;kind of people&quot; am I? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:21, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::: DFX. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 08:26, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:::::::::::Exactly my point. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:19, 15 October 2025 (UTC)
:Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold]] and [[User:Dan Polansky|Dan]] — I appreciate your considerations and communications. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:51, 15 October 2025 (UTC)

== Peer review ==

@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hello James, I hope you are doing well. The 2 articles I wrote are now ready to be published. Is there some kind of peer review possible? I tried to find some help at [[Portal:Particle physics]] but all data there is very old. How can we move forward from this? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:52, 16 October 2025 (UTC)

:Perhaps try [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] - that's the general way to communicate with English Wikiversity users/editors. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:08, 17 October 2025 (UTC)

== Hello James, I need your help. ==

Could join the discussion with us in [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Concern regarding curator conduct User:Dan Polansky]]

We would like to solicit your input on this matter.  [[User:Tomlovesfar|Tomlovesfar]] ([[User talk:Tomlovesfar|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tomlovesfar|contribs]]) 03:54, 17 October 2025 (UTC)

== Quantum ==

Hello James, If you have time could you lease look at [[Quantum]]. An essay like page with simple information, that might attract students. I Know its not your field, but maybe it appeals to you. Thanks, [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 23:39, 18 October 2025 (UTC)

== ShakespeareFan00 ==

Goodevening, please, if you have time, take a look at the edits made by this user. A few hundred in 2 days ! Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 20:35, 31 October 2025 (UTC)

== When is a quote or blockquote needed? ==

Hi James, I hope you are doing well. I did wrote some articles and parts off them at Wikipedia. If i want to use parts of it at Wikiversity do i still need to quote that parts? Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:19, 2 November 2025 (UTC)

:Basically, if you didn't author text which is being added, then the genesis of the text needs to be made clear (e.g, edit summary, quotation etc.) It is also possible to import pages (e.g., from Wikipedia) which brings in the full edit history. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:38, 3 November 2025 (UTC)

== Publishing transcripts ==

Hi James, Is it allowed to publish a transcript in Wikiversity as per my example at [[User:Harold Foppele/sandbox-2]]. If not, then I remove the page ofcourse. I think it could be nice if I edit it to make it easy accessible in various Wikipages.
But again, if its not allowed, i remove it. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 11:28, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

== User:Dan Polansky ==

@Jtneill , Hi James, You are a curator/bureaucrat, if i'm not mistaken. Please look at: [[User:Dan Polansky/Problem reports (about Wikiversity problems)]] I feel outright insulted and ask you (if you can) to put an end to it. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:59, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
: I wrote: &quot;The user account created articles in the subject of quantum mechanics that use wiki-voice and do not state the author. Since it is very likely that he does not understand quantum mechanics as per evidence in the revision history of his user talk page, it is also likely that they contain countless errors. The articles are presented to the reader as valid referenced content, not as one person's exercise in who-knows-what. Preventing the user account from creating new pages and moving all his articles to user space would address the issue.&quot;
: I think it is accurate. By now, we have enough evidence I think that the user account is a troll account, an intentional disruptor. There are multiple behavioral signs, both in Wikipedia and in Wikiversity.
: I propose an indef block of the user account. An alternative is not to feed into this troll account. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:03, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::Well well here we go again [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:18, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::: I opened [[Wikiversity:Request custodian action#Indefinite block for Harold_Foppele]]. I fear it will be in vain. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 18:26, 6 November 2025 (UTC)
::::You are allowed to hope [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 18:42, 6 November 2025 (UTC)

== Moving to personal namespace ==

What are the policies or customs on Wikiversity for moving pages to personal userspace? Isn't there a risk that Wikiversity will turn into a blogging platform where many users will cultivate pages in their userspace and the outside world will not benefit from it?

I see moving to ns user as a frequent suggestion in Requests for deletion (RFD). I would understand moving to ns Draft, which is clearly defined and there is a chance that the resource will then get into the main ns, thus serving the community. I would understand the suggestion to move to another wikiproject, where the text will serve the community. But I don't really understand the frequent moves to personal ns. Since it's in the RFD, it should either be kept or deleted. If someone contributes to Wikiversity, they automatically agree to its policies and also to the fact that they don't own the pages and someone can put them up for deletion. [[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 09:36, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

I personally don't need a free website to host my pages. How would I get rid of the unfinished [[Pomology]] meta course if it was moved to my NS? ([https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Requests_for_Deletion#c-Dan_Polansky-20251121091100-Juandev-20251120220900 Moving it to my own NS is suggested in RFD]). I'm putting it in the Request for deletion because, even though I started it, it looks like other editors had significant input there. Will I have the right to request speedy deletion if the pages are moved to my user ns?

I think this tactic of moving to personal space is poorly thought out, but it has become the norm.

Is there any guideline or discussion from before? If something appears in a deletion request, the majority decides that it should be moved to user ns, how can the person in question defend themselves that they don't want it in their own ns? It seems the community is pressuring the original author to agree to deletion. It seems that the user ns is an untouchable territory into which the community has the right to throw whatever it thinks from the main ns. So why aren't those pages deleted when the community decides that they don't belong in the main ns? --[[User:Juandev|Juandev]] ([[User talk:Juandev|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Juandev|contribs]]) 10:30, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

{{ping|Juandev}} I replied on your talk page. But here's another version: Personally, in general, I try to keep my notes etc. in user space. Then if I have something more developed to share and collaborate on, then main space. Draft could be helpful to keep main space tidy, but is very quiet/unused, so in reality most drafts are in main space. But if the content is dubious, underdeveloped, lacking citation/peer review etc. then delete, or user space if it could still be developed. That's roughly how I see it. But everyone has a slightly different view/preference, so discuss to develop consensus. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:48, 22 November 2025 (UTC)

== Ninefold Resonance Theory ==
Dear Jtneill, I noticed that when you deleted [[Ninefold Resonance Theory]], you accidentally deleted the article in my own user space as well. However, I got the impression that most users felt that it should be allowed to exist in my own user space. I thought long and hard about my theory and I'm disappointed that it's gone now... Could you move the article back to my own user space, so not in the main space? I look forward to hearing from you! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:22, 28 November 2025 (UTC)

:Nevermind. I will move all my ideas to everybodywiki.com. 😄 Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:36, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
::Could you please e-mail me the source code of the deleted page? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:42, 28 November 2025 (UTC)
:[[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]]: Apologies, the user page version was accidentally deleted. It has now been restored. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
::Thank you! ☺️ Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 06:58, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
:::All pages in my user space have been moved to EverybodyWiki. Could you perhaps delete all the pages with the {{tl|speedy}} template on it? Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 07:08, 29 November 2025 (UTC)
::::[[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]]: The main space redirects and all your user sub-pages have been deleted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:25, 1 December 2025 (UTC)
:::::Thank you! Kind regards, [[User:S. Perquin|S. Perquin]] ([[User talk:S. Perquin|overleg]] • [[Special:Contributions/S. Perquin|bijdragen]]) 08:24, 1 December 2025 (UTC)

== Vandalism ==

{{ping|Jtneill}} May I draw your attantion to this!
==== 6 December 2025 ====

* cur[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2778412 prev] &lt;bdi&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;oldid=2778412 13:15, 6 December 2025]&lt;/bdi&gt; [[User:Revolving Doormat|&lt;bdi&gt;Revolving Doormat&lt;/bdi&gt;]] [[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]  75,351 bytes +279  request speedy delete under CSD1 [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Chaos_Theory_Extended&amp;action=edit&amp;undoafter=2777042&amp;undo=2778412 undo][[Special:Thanks/2778412|thank]] [[Special:Tags|Tag]]: [[Wikiversity:VisualEditor|Visual edit: Switched]]

[[User:Revolving Doormat|&lt;bdi&gt;Revolving Doormat&lt;/bdi&gt;]] account created today 
at the same time as = &lt;bdi&gt;~2025-38873-79&lt;/bdi&gt; =

So I assume they are all the same.
Am I allowed to remove the delete template by myself?
Greetings [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 16:41, 6 December 2025 (UTC)

:We are not the same person. I came here from an AfD on Wikipedia and your page creation ban here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard/Incidents#c-Ldm1954-20251205133800-Requesting_page_creation_block_of_User:Harold_Foppele
:The temp user already identified that I notified WP about the same activity on WV, and that brought them here. [[User:Revolving Doormat|Revolving Doormat]] ([[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]) 17:08, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
::Its so coincidental that you all share the same IP range isn't it? Using an empty account? [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:19, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
:::The user already identified their WP account and my WP user id is the same one I have here. I don't believe you have access to our IP addresses, but but based on their WP biography, that would also be impossible. I will not be engaging with you further. [[User:Revolving Doormat|Revolving Doormat]] ([[User talk:Revolving Doormat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Revolving Doormat|contribs]]) 17:25, 6 December 2025 (UTC)
::::What you believe or not is up to you [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:41, 6 December 2025 (UTC)

== User Dan Polansky ==

I want to draw your attention to the edits (mainly copy/paste) by [[user:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] today. Still trying to act as curator? They continue their previous harassment. Cheers [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:07, 12 December 2025 (UTC)

== Happy New Year, Jtneill! ==
&lt;div style=&quot;border: 3px solid #FFD700; background-color: #FFFAF0; padding:0.2em 0.4em; height:auto; min-height:173px; border-radius:1em; {{box-shadow|0.1em|0.1em|0.5em|rgba(0,0,0,0.75)}}&lt;!--
--&gt;&quot; class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;
[[File:Everlasting Fireworks looped.gif|left|x173px]][[File:Happy new year 01.svg|x173px|right]]
{{Paragraph break}}
{{Center|{{resize|179%|'''''[[New Year|Happy New Year]]!'''''}}}}
'''Jtneill''',&lt;br /&gt;Have a prosperous, productive and enjoyable [[New Year]], and thanks for your contributions to Wikiversity.
&lt;br /&gt;[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 17:10, 2 January 2026 (UTC)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''{{resize|88%|Send New Year cheer by adding {{tls|Happy New Year fireworks}} to user talk pages.}}''
{{clear}}&lt;!-- From template:Happy New Year fireworks --&gt;

== Please delete [[MediaWiki:Gadget-WikiSign.js]] ==

Reason: This is a request by the author (major contributor). Custodians don't have interface admin rights, so custodians cannot delete this page. Bureaucrats can delete this page by temporarily adding themselves to the interface admin user group ([[User_talk:Jtneill/Archive/2024#Please_delete_MediaWiki:Wikidebate.js]]). Thank you for your attention. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 09:11, 11 February 2026 (UTC)

== DELETE request ==

Please DELETE [[Creating Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]] to [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]. I created the article with an erroneous name. I will recreate it with the name I want. Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 20:15, 11 February 2026 (UTC)
: {{Done}} [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:12, 13 February 2026 (UTC)

== Archiving ==

Hi and hello @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] I did some archiving from Colloquium and RCA. If you have time that I'm on the right track? It where only a few, so if I did wrong, its easily undone, otherwise I continue as per request. Thanks [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 19:21, 12 February 2026 (UTC)

:@[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] Please remember to user &lt;nowiki&gt;{{archive|Wikiversity:Colloquium}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; instead of &lt;nowiki&gt;{{archive}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; so that people who find themselves in the archives know where to go if they are unsure of anything. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 07:12, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::@[[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] I have literally no idea what you are talking about. So elaborate please. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 08:53, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::Ahhh I see what you mean. Strange that you comment on MY edits only. NONE of the archive templates at WC archive have that. Did you overlook that?[[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:13, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::That’s why the discussion parameter is red linked, I am working on that. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 09:22, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::Well, you could have said that instead. I think it's a bit overdone, since the page title is reads already Archive. [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 09:26, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
::::::New users will click on the red linked, which brings them to create the talk page, which is not watched so they won’t receive a response to their question. [[User:PieWriter|PieWriter]] ([[User talk:PieWriter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PieWriter|contribs]]) 12:15, 13 February 2026 (UTC)
:::::::That is true [[User:Harold Foppele|Harold Foppele]] ([[User talk:Harold Foppele|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Harold Foppele|contribs]]) 12:58, 13 February 2026 (UTC)

== Email ==

I sent you an email about a private abuse filter, feel free to take a look. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 00:39, 15 April 2026 (UTC)

== AI slop, ownership, and wikilawyering. ==

Using AI images is worse than no images. Your constant reverting of reasonable edits removing images you prompted on pages you wrote would be considered [[w:wp:OWN]]ership on Wikipedia; even if there is no general guideline on Wikiversity the spirit of not having the final say because just you made the page is applicable to all Wikimedia wikis. Reverting a reasonable edit because it lacks an image seems like [[w:wp:WIKILAWYER]]ing— I don’t know if edit summaries are ''required'' here, but I doubt it, and on most wikis they are simply recommended. Not having one doesn’t invalidate the edit. [[User:Dronebogus|Dronebogus]] ([[User talk:Dronebogus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dronebogus|contribs]]) 05:27, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

:I understand that you don't like many AI images because you consider them slop. My view is that some of these AI images can be useful for educational purposes.
:I understand that you think an alternative or no image is better than some AI images. My view is that some AI images are better than no image and are either useful in addition to alternative images or more useful than some alternatives.
:May I suggest deciding first on Commons whether to keep an image, rather than removing from Wikiversity and then nominating for deletion on Commons because of no use.
:I have no interest in edit warring. I'll invite [[WV:RCA]] to review your recent edits. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:20, 26 April 2026 (UTC)

== You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Greetings,

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years.

This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required.

The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run.

In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:32, 28 April 2026 (UTC) &lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&amp;oldid=30471751 --&gt;

== Thoughts about Wikinews closure ==

I think Wikiversity could bring in Wikinews users possibly. Thoughts? @[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 23:05, 13 May 2026 (UTC)

:Welcome. Sorry for the loss of Wikinews. I hope WN editors can find their way into contributing to WMF sister projects most aligned with their interests and skills, including Wikiversity. For me, the key here is alignment with [[Wikiversity:Mission]]. It may take some time to work out what's possible. As @[[User:Koavf|koavf]] suggests, a good place to start could be building on [[:Category:Journalism]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 23:22, 13 May 2026 (UTC)
::Thanks. [[User:BigKrow|BigKrow]] ([[User talk:BigKrow|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BigKrow|contribs]]) 23:23, 13 May 2026 (UTC)

== Hi. Would it be ok to post on your talk page using &quot;AI&quot;/LLMs? ==

Hello! Would it be ok if I posted some future messages that were generated by an &quot;AI&quot;/AI/LLM? If yes, would you prefer the generated message to be ie. max 100 words, less words or the talk message to include both original and generated message? Any other preferences/requirements? So far, 1 user has responded to this type of inquiry. They prefer 100 words max of generated talk page message. Best wishes [[User:ThinkingScience|ThinkingScience]] ([[User talk:ThinkingScience|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ThinkingScience|contribs]]) 21:04, 22 June 2026 (UTC)
: You are welcome to post directly to my talk page if you think that is a good place for a conversation. Personally, I don't much care whether or not content is AI-generated, but note the principles suggested by [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:09, 23 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>7jwauz8hrm8dc1s5pkcvuzlv5g5ogvo</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatomy</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>2816527</id>
      <parentid>2425515</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>SGarrard</username>
        <id>3092276</id>
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      <text bytes="926" sha1="j9xrcgs7g5ay7rhiuk3l5ejvpzje6sp" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Anatomy|Medicine ]]</text>
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        <id>3092276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Undid revision [[Special:Diff/2816527|2816527]] by [[Special:Contributions/SGarrard|SGarrard]] ([[User talk:SGarrard|talk]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="918" sha1="11a4go3z32wuz13nm58xu8ry7v2y25i" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Anatomy| ]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816531</id>
      <parentid>2816528</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T04:33:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SGarrard</username>
        <id>3092276</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>SGarrard moved page [[Anatomy]] to [[Gross Anatomy]]: Module is specifically about human gross anatomy</comment>
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      <text bytes="918" sha1="11a4go3z32wuz13nm58xu8ry7v2y25i" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Anatomy| ]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816535</id>
      <parentid>2816531</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T04:37:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SGarrard</username>
        <id>3092276</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>SGarrard moved page [[Gross Anatomy]] to [[Anatomy]] over redirect</comment>
      <origin>2816528</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="918" sha1="11a4go3z32wuz13nm58xu8ry7v2y25i" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Anatomy| ]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816539</id>
      <parentid>2816535</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T04:38:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SGarrard</username>
        <id>3092276</id>
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      <text bytes="924" sha1="tu4qf4pkou1t32m6dpr4hm5w5e20otg" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Human Anatomy| ]]</text>
      <sha1>tu4qf4pkou1t32m6dpr4hm5w5e20otg</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816541</id>
      <parentid>2816539</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T04:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SGarrard</username>
        <id>3092276</id>
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      <text bytes="924" sha1="5k7y5l7fp4wqaz8joqjzfdkzbqgoq21" xml:space="preserve">This course teaches the structure of the human body. Learners will be able to access key resources to help them to better understand the basic components of the body. It is the first Level 1 Module of the [[School:Medicine|Wikiversity School of Medicine]] as defined by the overall [[Medical School Curriculum|curriculum]]. This module is the work of the [[Portal:Anatomy|Department of Anatomy]].

== Lessons ==
* [[/Introduction/]]
* [[/Unit 1|Basic anatomy]]
* [[/Unit 1|Head and neck]]
* [[/Unit 3|Thorax]]
* [[/Unit 4|Abdomen]]
* [[/Unit 1|Back]]
* [[/Unit 3|Upper limb]]
* [[/Unit 4|Lower limb]]
* [[/Unit 2|Nervous System Anatomy]]

== Additional Reading ==
* [[/Bibliography/]]

== Assessments ==
* [[UCL anatomy]]

== External Links ==
*[http://PracticeAnatomy.com PracticeAnatomy], online atlas of anatomical images
*[https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy_main/ Human Anatomy], Earth's Lab

[[Category:Human anatomy| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Summary */ Update for 2026</comment>
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      <text bytes="4275" sha1="24xjlggea66i3abfyxqckszh07bhayt" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{title|Assessment}}
==Overview==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
There are three assessment tasks. The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]) involves a deep dive into a specific topic of interest, while the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Exam|exam]] assesses breadth of knowledge.

==Summary==
{{Anchor|Table}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item'''
| '''Weight''' 
| style=&quot;width: 16%&quot;|'''Due'''
|'''Late submissions'''
|'''Extensions'''
| style=&quot;width: 30%&quot;|'''Description'''
| '''Time involved'''&lt;br&gt;(150 hrs)
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 10%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Due}}
|Up to 3 days (-10% per day)
|Available with documentation
| Create Wikiversity account. Select or negotiate an approved topic. Build editing skills. Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] consisting of overview, headings, key points, figure, learning feature, resources, and references. Create Wikiversity user page. Make and summarise at least three social contributions.
| '''15 hours''': 1 hr sign-up. 4 hrs to learn &quot;how&quot; (incl. 2 x 1 hr tutorials), 5 hrs research, 5 hrs preparation
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 50%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Due}}
|Up to 3 days (-10% per day)
|Available with documentation
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique, approved motivation or emotion topic. Includes a social contribution component.
| '''75 hours''': 10 hrs to learn how, 30 hrs research, 35 hrs drafting and preparation
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Exam|Exam]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; |40%
|Week 14 or 15 during exam period
|Not accepted
|Apply to exams office for deferred exam
|2-hour online, remotely proctored, exam with multiple choice and open-ended questions: 50% about motivation. 50% about emotion. Assesses knowledge and learning from  lectures, tutorials, and readings.
|'''60 hours''': 24 hrs lectures (12 x 2 hrs), 10 hrs tutorials (10 x 1 hr), 24 hrs reading and practice quizzes, 2 hrs completing exam
|}&lt;noinclude&gt;

==Requirements==
&lt;includeonly&gt;'''Requirements'''&lt;/includeonly&gt;
* All assessment must be submitted online via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
* Non-submissions will be awarded 0
* It is not necessary to pass each assessment item, however a final mark of 50% or higher is required to Pass the unit
* The University of Canberra grading schema will be applied to final marks (HD = 85+, DI = 75 to 84, CR = 65 to 74), and P = 50 to 64)

==[[/Alternative/|Alternative assessment]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative}}
==[[/Using generative AI/|Generative AI]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI}}
==[[/Extensions|Extensions]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Extensions}}
==Late submissions==
#The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] assessment items can be submitted up to 3 days late without an approved extension. This will incur a 10% penalty per day (i.e., -10% of total marks available for the assessment item), including weekends. A part-day late is counted as a full day late. If submitted beyond 3 days late, 0 will be awarded for the assessment item.

==Marking and feedback==
#Assessment will generally be marked and feedback provided within three weeks of submission
#Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via the unit's {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements
#Assessment submitted after the due date and time, regardless of whether an extension was granted, may be returned at a later date than those submitted on time
#Late submission may result in reduced feedback being provided
&lt;!-- #If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]]. --&gt;

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}| ]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T04:59:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ + Marking rubric</comment>
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      <text bytes="29066" sha1="e9d88ygkasr16wd0yv1jobmlwdsw820" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''': Provide a numbered list of social contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], with direct links to changes. To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Then summarise the edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) using a numbered list and provide hyperlinks to direct evidence of the changes made. More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]].
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on:
*** '''quantity''' (breadth):
**** frequency: number of different chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''' (depth):
*** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in &quot;last minute&quot; feedback
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced social contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25%
*** Moderate 0.50%
*** Major 1.00%
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00%
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

;Rubric for social contribution marking
{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Bonus marks'''
| Up to 5 bonus marks are available in exceptional circumstances where wiki contributions to the book are above and beyond those required for HD-level. Such contributions could include very substantial contributions across multiple chapters. This could include extensive copyediting, regular feedback, and support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion.
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| Very significant contributions are made to development of other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor clearly embraced the collaborative nature of the online book task. This is indicated primarily by the user's edit history on Wikiversity which shows significant and regular contributions to the development of at least several chapters via discussion page comments and probably also chapter edits. Such contributions are likely to have occurred across at least half of the semester. It is also quite likely that contributions extend across more than one channel of electronically logged communication (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least four other chapters is likely to be worth a HD.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| Significant contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced online collaboration as indicated by the user's wiki edit history. Notable contributions are made to the development of several chapters via discussion pages and chapter edits. Contributions are spread over at least a month. Contributions are likely to have extended across more than one publicly logged electronic communication channels (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least three others chapters is likely to be worth a DI.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| Moderate contributions to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced some aspects of online collaboration by providing many wiki edits beyond the contributor's target chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts. These contributions are made over a period of at least a couple of weeks and in sufficient time for other authors to incorporate the feedback into the final drafting process. As a guide, helping to significantly improve at least two other chapters is likely to be worth a CR.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| Basic contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). For example, at least one other chapter in the book is significantly enhanced because of the user's contributions.  This might involve some helpful comments on several occasions about at least one other book chapter — or perhaps a single, substantial proofread with several useful comments about a full draft could be sufficient for a Pass.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| Either no contributions are made or contributions were limited. A lack of collaborative effort is evident, as indicated by minimal, if any, wiki contributions beyond one's primary chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. For example:
# comments lacked detail and/or depth;
# comments were not timely (e.g., were provided very late in the drafting process)
|}

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of chapters at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A professional, near-publishable, interesting, informative, insightful, [[/Readability|readable]] explanation of relevant psychological theory and research about a well-defined, unique motivation or emotion topic. The chapter has a well-organised layout and headings, with relevant and well-captioned accompanying figures, tables, and/or figures. Excellent spelling, grammar, and APA style is used. The chapter makes effective use of wiki links to other relevant chapters and/or Wikipedia articles. Additional interactive learning features are included. Substantial social contributions are made to the development of other chapters, such as particularly useful peer-review comments on several chapter talk pages across at least half of the semester.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good chapter, with several professional-level aspects. The chapter is informative, accurate and insightful, covering key relevant theory and research. The material is very competently handled and well-written, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. Layout is clear and effective. Good use is made of wiki links, tables, and figures. References are in very good APA style. The chapter includes additional learning features. Helpful contributions were made to some other chapters over at least a month.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent chapter with reasonably informative and insightful content which includes moderately good coverage of relevant theory and research. Some aspects of the theory or research coverage may be missing, limited, or problematic. Integration of theory and research is less assured than at higher levels. Layout and headings are reasonably useful, but could probably also be improved (e.g., by being more detailed). References are in reasonable APA style, but often several corrections are needed. Some wiki links, figures, and/or additional learning features are provided, but could have been developed further. Some helpful contributions were made over at least a couple of weeks to at least a couple of other chapters.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| The chapter provides a satisfactory, basic explanation of relevant theory and research, but lacks the depth and/or comprehensiveness that is characteristic of higher grade chapters. The chapter may struggle to clearly conceptualise the topic, organise the structure and layout, contribute to the book theme, and/or may lack depth and originality. Spelling and grammar problems are often prevalent. Citation and referencing tends to be limited in scope and quality, often with reliance on only a few (or less) high-quality peer-review references. There may relatively little meaningful use of figures or additional learning features. These chapters typically have a brief edit history (e.g., less than 2 weeks) and often read like an early draft which would benefit from more drafting to address feedback, and better proofreading. Often chapters of this standard are noticeably shorter than chapters which attract higher grades. Chapter authors often haven't sought or acted upon feedback. Some useful social contributions to at some other chapters are made, but this tends to be fairly basic and made towards the end of the drafting period.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The chapter does not demonstrate a satisfactory grasp of key psychological theory and research which pertains to a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident, sometimes with little to no use of peer-reviewed references. These chapters typically have underdeveloped heading structures and the content is often brief or incomplete. Layout and [[/Readability|readability]] is often poor and the quality of written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. Sometimes plagiarism may be evident. Generally, there is a lack of sufficient effort (e.g., these chapters often have short tend to have last-minute editing histories) and have attracted little, if any, peer review. Little to no social contribution is made to the development of other book chapters.
|}

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Reducing word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''': Provide a numbered list of social contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], with direct links to changes. To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Then summarise the edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) using a numbered list and provide hyperlinks to direct evidence of the changes made. More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]].
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on:
*** '''quantity''' (breadth):
**** frequency: number of different chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''' (depth):
*** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in &quot;last minute&quot; feedback
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced social contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25%
*** Moderate 0.50%
*** Major 1.00%
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00%
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

;Rubric for social contribution marking
{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Bonus marks'''
| Up to 5 bonus marks are available in exceptional circumstances where wiki contributions to the book are above and beyond those required for HD-level. Such contributions could include very substantial contributions across multiple chapters. This could include extensive copyediting, regular feedback, and support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion.
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| Very significant contributions are made to development of other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor clearly embraced the collaborative nature of the online book task. This is indicated primarily by the user's edit history on Wikiversity which shows significant and regular contributions to the development of at least several chapters via discussion page comments and probably also chapter edits. Such contributions are likely to have occurred across at least half of the semester. It is also quite likely that contributions extend across more than one channel of electronically logged communication (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least four other chapters is likely to be worth a HD.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| Significant contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced online collaboration as indicated by the user's wiki edit history. Notable contributions are made to the development of several chapters via discussion pages and chapter edits. Contributions are spread over at least a month. Contributions are likely to have extended across more than one publicly logged electronic communication channels (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least three others chapters is likely to be worth a DI.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| Moderate contributions to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced some aspects of online collaboration by providing many wiki edits beyond the contributor's target chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts. These contributions are made over a period of at least a couple of weeks and in sufficient time for other authors to incorporate the feedback into the final drafting process. As a guide, helping to significantly improve at least two other chapters is likely to be worth a CR.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| Basic contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). For example, at least one other chapter in the book is significantly enhanced because of the user's contributions.  This might involve some helpful comments on several occasions about at least one other book chapter — or perhaps a single, substantial proofread with several useful comments about a full draft could be sufficient for a Pass.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| Either no contributions are made or contributions were limited. A lack of collaborative effort is evident, as indicated by minimal, if any, wiki contributions beyond one's primary chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. For example:
# comments lacked detail and/or depth;
# comments were not timely (e.g., were provided very late in the drafting process)
|}

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of chapters at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A professional, near-publishable, interesting, informative, insightful, [[/Readability|readable]] explanation of relevant psychological theory and research about a well-defined, unique motivation or emotion topic. The chapter has a well-organised layout and headings, with relevant and well-captioned accompanying figures, tables, and/or figures. Excellent spelling, grammar, and APA style is used. The chapter makes effective use of wiki links to other relevant chapters and/or Wikipedia articles. Additional interactive learning features are included. Substantial social contributions are made to the development of other chapters, such as particularly useful peer-review comments on several chapter talk pages across at least half of the semester.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good chapter, with several professional-level aspects. The chapter is informative, accurate and insightful, covering key relevant theory and research. The material is very competently handled and well-written, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. Layout is clear and effective. Good use is made of wiki links, tables, and figures. References are in very good APA style. The chapter includes additional learning features. Helpful contributions were made to some other chapters over at least a month.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent chapter with reasonably informative and insightful content which includes moderately good coverage of relevant theory and research. Some aspects of the theory or research coverage may be missing, limited, or problematic. Integration of theory and research is less assured than at higher levels. Layout and headings are reasonably useful, but could probably also be improved (e.g., by being more detailed). References are in reasonable APA style, but often several corrections are needed. Some wiki links, figures, and/or additional learning features are provided, but could have been developed further. Some helpful contributions were made over at least a couple of weeks to at least a couple of other chapters.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| The chapter provides a satisfactory, basic explanation of relevant theory and research, but lacks the depth and/or comprehensiveness that is characteristic of higher grade chapters. The chapter may struggle to clearly conceptualise the topic, organise the structure and layout, contribute to the book theme, and/or may lack depth and originality. Spelling and grammar problems are often prevalent. Citation and referencing tends to be limited in scope and quality, often with reliance on only a few (or less) high-quality peer-review references. There may relatively little meaningful use of figures or additional learning features. These chapters typically have a brief edit history (e.g., less than 2 weeks) and often read like an early draft which would benefit from more drafting to address feedback, and better proofreading. Often chapters of this standard are noticeably shorter than chapters which attract higher grades. Chapter authors often haven't sought or acted upon feedback. Some useful social contributions to at some other chapters are made, but this tends to be fairly basic and made towards the end of the drafting period.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The chapter does not demonstrate a satisfactory grasp of key psychological theory and research which pertains to a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident, sometimes with little to no use of peer-reviewed references. These chapters typically have underdeveloped heading structures and the content is often brief or incomplete. Layout and [[/Readability|readability]] is often poor and the quality of written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. Sometimes plagiarism may be evident. Generally, there is a lack of sufficient effort (e.g., these chapters often have short tend to have last-minute editing histories) and have attracted little, if any, peer review. Little to no social contribution is made to the development of other book chapters.
|}

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Reducing word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''': Provide a numbered list of social contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], with direct links to changes. To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Then summarise the edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) using a numbered list and provide hyperlinks to direct evidence of the changes made. More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]].
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on:
*** '''quantity''' (breadth):
**** frequency: number of different chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''' (depth):
*** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in &quot;last minute&quot; feedback
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced social contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25%
*** Moderate 0.50%
*** Major 1.00%
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00%
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

;Rubric for social contribution marking
{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Bonus marks'''
| Up to 5 bonus marks are available in exceptional circumstances where wiki contributions to the book are above and beyond those required for HD-level. Such contributions could include very substantial contributions across multiple chapters. This could include extensive copyediting, regular feedback, and support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion.
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| Very significant contributions are made to development of other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor clearly embraced the collaborative nature of the online book task. This is indicated primarily by the user's edit history on Wikiversity which shows significant and regular contributions to the development of at least several chapters via discussion page comments and probably also chapter edits. Such contributions are likely to have occurred across at least half of the semester. It is also quite likely that contributions extend across more than one channel of electronically logged communication (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least four other chapters is likely to be worth a HD.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| Significant contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced online collaboration as indicated by the user's wiki edit history. Notable contributions are made to the development of several chapters via discussion pages and chapter edits. Contributions are spread over at least a month. Contributions are likely to have extended across more than one publicly logged electronic communication channels (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least three others chapters is likely to be worth a DI.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| Moderate contributions to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced some aspects of online collaboration by providing many wiki edits beyond the contributor's target chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts. These contributions are made over a period of at least a couple of weeks and in sufficient time for other authors to incorporate the feedback into the final drafting process. As a guide, helping to significantly improve at least two other chapters is likely to be worth a CR.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| Basic contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). For example, at least one other chapter in the book is significantly enhanced because of the user's contributions.  This might involve some helpful comments on several occasions about at least one other book chapter — or perhaps a single, substantial proofread with several useful comments about a full draft could be sufficient for a Pass.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| Either no contributions are made or contributions were limited. A lack of collaborative effort is evident, as indicated by minimal, if any, wiki contributions beyond one's primary chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. For example:
# comments lacked detail and/or depth;
# comments were not timely (e.g., were provided very late in the drafting process)
|}

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of chapters at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A professional, near-publishable, interesting, informative, insightful, [[/Readability|readable]] explanation of relevant psychological theory and research about a well-defined, unique motivation or emotion topic. The chapter has a well-organised layout and headings, with relevant and well-captioned accompanying figures, tables, and/or figures. Excellent spelling, grammar, and APA style is used. The chapter makes effective use of wiki links to other relevant chapters and/or Wikipedia articles. Additional interactive learning features are included. Substantial social contributions are made to the development of other chapters, such as particularly useful peer-review comments on several chapter talk pages across at least half of the semester.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good chapter, with several professional-level aspects. The chapter is informative, accurate and insightful, covering key relevant theory and research. The material is very competently handled and well-written, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. Layout is clear and effective. Good use is made of wiki links, tables, and figures. References are in very good APA style. The chapter includes additional learning features. Helpful contributions were made to some other chapters over at least a month.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent chapter with reasonably informative and insightful content which includes moderately good coverage of relevant theory and research. Some aspects of the theory or research coverage may be missing, limited, or problematic. Integration of theory and research is less assured than at higher levels. Layout and headings are reasonably useful, but could probably also be improved (e.g., by being more detailed). References are in reasonable APA style, but often several corrections are needed. Some wiki links, figures, and/or additional learning features are provided, but could have been developed further. Some helpful contributions were made over at least a couple of weeks to at least a couple of other chapters.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| The chapter provides a satisfactory, basic explanation of relevant theory and research, but lacks the depth and/or comprehensiveness that is characteristic of higher grade chapters. The chapter may struggle to clearly conceptualise the topic, organise the structure and layout, contribute to the book theme, and/or may lack depth and originality. Spelling and grammar problems are often prevalent. Citation and referencing tends to be limited in scope and quality, often with reliance on only a few (or less) high-quality peer-review references. There may relatively little meaningful use of figures or additional learning features. These chapters typically have a brief edit history (e.g., less than 2 weeks) and often read like an early draft which would benefit from more drafting to address feedback, and better proofreading. Often chapters of this standard are noticeably shorter than chapters which attract higher grades. Chapter authors often haven't sought or acted upon feedback. Some useful social contributions to at some other chapters are made, but this tends to be fairly basic and made towards the end of the drafting period.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The chapter does not demonstrate a satisfactory grasp of key psychological theory and research which pertains to a specific, unique motivation or emotion topic. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident, sometimes with little to no use of peer-reviewed references. These chapters typically have underdeveloped heading structures and the content is often brief or incomplete. Layout and [[/Readability|readability]] is often poor and the quality of written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. Sometimes plagiarism may be evident. Generally, there is a lack of sufficient effort (e.g., these chapters often have short tend to have last-minute editing histories) and have attracted little, if any, peer review. Little to no social contribution is made to the development of other book chapters.
|}

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''': Provide a numbered list of social contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], with direct links to changes. To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Then summarise the edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) using a numbered list and provide hyperlinks to direct evidence of the changes made. More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]].
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on:
*** '''quantity''' (breadth):
**** frequency: number of different chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''' (depth):
*** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in &quot;last minute&quot; feedback
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced social contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25%
*** Moderate 0.50%
*** Major 1.00%
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00%
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

;Rubric for social contribution marking
{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''Bonus marks'''
| Up to 5 bonus marks are available in exceptional circumstances where wiki contributions to the book are above and beyond those required for HD-level. Such contributions could include very substantial contributions across multiple chapters. This could include extensive copyediting, regular feedback, and support on multiple chapter discussion pages. It may also involve substantial activity on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion.
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| Very significant contributions are made to development of other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor clearly embraced the collaborative nature of the online book task. This is indicated primarily by the user's edit history on Wikiversity which shows significant and regular contributions to the development of at least several chapters via discussion page comments and probably also chapter edits. Such contributions are likely to have occurred across at least half of the semester. It is also quite likely that contributions extend across more than one channel of electronically logged communication (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least four other chapters is likely to be worth a HD.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| Significant contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced online collaboration as indicated by the user's wiki edit history. Notable contributions are made to the development of several chapters via discussion pages and chapter edits. Contributions are spread over at least a month. Contributions are likely to have extended across more than one publicly logged electronic communication channels (e.g., wiki contributions and {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion). Helping to significantly improve at least three others chapters is likely to be worth a DI.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| Moderate contributions to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). The contributor embraced some aspects of online collaboration by providing many wiki edits beyond the contributor's target chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts. These contributions are made over a period of at least a couple of weeks and in sufficient time for other authors to incorporate the feedback into the final drafting process. As a guide, helping to significantly improve at least two other chapters is likely to be worth a CR.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| Basic contributions are made to other book chapters (beyond one's target chapter). For example, at least one other chapter in the book is significantly enhanced because of the user's contributions.  This might involve some helpful comments on several occasions about at least one other book chapter — or perhaps a single, substantial proofread with several useful comments about a full draft could be sufficient for a Pass.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| Either no contributions are made or contributions were limited. A lack of collaborative effort is evident, as indicated by minimal, if any, wiki contributions beyond one's primary chapter and/or {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. For example:
# comments lacked detail and/or depth;
# comments were not timely (e.g., were provided very late in the drafting process)
|}

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''': Provide a numbered list of social contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], with direct links to changes. To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Then summarise the edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) using a numbered list and provide hyperlinks to direct evidence of the changes made. More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]].
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on:
*** '''quantity''' (breadth):
**** frequency: number of different chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''' (depth):
*** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in &quot;last minute&quot; feedback
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced social contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25%
*** Moderate 0.50%
*** Major 1.00%
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00%
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="20850" sha1="dw8japmk2m7cf2wjq2ixmkz224s072h" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mediawiki:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''quantity''':
**** breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''':
**** depth
**** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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      <id>2816570</id>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''edits''': direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''comments''': feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''media uploads''': create and/or upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''quantity''':
**** breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''':
**** depth
**** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>j8uiokaqhgikw69m697kq5vmdbq95dl</sha1>
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      <text bytes="20829" sha1="soea9dhfbjos3oadinzfrxkypwjrrr9" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
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 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
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 |event = this assessment is due
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--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''quantity''':
**** breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''quality''':
**** depth
**** insightfulness
**** practical value
**** extent/thoroughness
*** '''timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** greater value in earlier contributions
**** lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <text bytes="20824" sha1="3gqc51lmh3zber8jym9zo7lgbe75vzg" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Provide an engaging scenario or case study
* Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved (problem statement)
* Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>3gqc51lmh3zber8jym9zo7lgbe75vzg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>73tixoacai71nixrde7lhka46a4yd7w</sha1>
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    <revision>
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        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theory (20%) */ Update for 2026</comment>
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      <text bytes="20908" sha1="tdhpgwwhl0ozdazl0ucwi71c07jq04f" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (systematic reviews, meta-analyses etc.)
* Demonstrate [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]]. Critically analyse key research findings, including limitations and implications.

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Emphasise the key points and take-home messages, particularly in relation to the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for personal growth and development

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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      <text bytes="20921" sha1="333v3cmgq8ni8l63sl80u581poook62" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Book chapter — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[
Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <id>2816580</id>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 09
 |day        = 29
 |hour       = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt;&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
{{/Contents/}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Collaborative online book chapter authoring''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
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{{TOCright}}

==Overview==
* Weight: 50%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Author an online [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter]] up to 4,000 words that explains key psychological theory and research about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic
** Create the chapter by building on the plan and addressing feedback from the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise
** Includes a social contribution component which involves contributing to the development of other book chapters
* Follow the [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]] and [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing marking rubric]
*Feedback will be provided to explain how well the chapter meets the marking criteria
*Marks and feedback should be returned within 3 weeks of the due date
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}—keep an eye on Announcements
**Written feedback will be available via the chapter's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand the feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment it is unlikely that you will pass the unit

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto; vertical-align:top;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task'''
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use the most relevant theories and peer-reviewed research to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Explain how psychological science can be applied to a specific motivation or emotion topic. Use figures, examples, and/or other interactive learning features to illustrate how this knowledge can apply to understanding human behaviour in everyday life.
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—communicate effectively
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Review scholarly knowledge in an open, online environment and address feedback.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—display initiative and drive
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Produce an online book chapter about a novel motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—up-to-date knowledge and skills
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Utilise the most relevant psychological theory and research to address a practical question.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be professional—solve problems via thinking
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Use critical thinking to explain how psychological science can address real-world problems.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—informed and balanced
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Provide a balanced, critical chapter which is accessible to a lay audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—communicate diversely
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Collaborate with peers to communicate knowledge openly with a global audience.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a global citizen—creative use of technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Learn how to collaborate using wiki technology.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—engage in new ideas
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Engage in a collaborative learning culture by incorporating feedback and suggestions.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Be a lifelong learner—evaluate and adopt new technology
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | Experience project work in a collaborative, online editing environment.
|}

==Instructions==
The following instructions should be used to guide the development of the book chapter.

===Theme===
* Chapters should fit the book theme which is &quot;understanding and improving our motivational and emotional lives using psychological science&quot;

===Audience===
* The target audience is a general (non-topic-expert) reader interested in personal growth and development based on knowledge in psychological science (theory and research). This is a [[w:science communication|science communication]] exercise.

===Wikiversity===
* Present the chapter as a single page on the [[Main Page|English Wikiversity]] website. A link to the chapter should appear in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|table of contents]] along with the lead author's Wikiversity user name

===Topic===
* The title and sub-title must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Collaboration and feedback===
* Chapters should be independently developed and written primarily by the lead author, but collaboration is strongly encouraged (e.g., by incorporating useful edits and feedback from others)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* Lead authors are encouraged to seek feedback about the chapter during the drafting process (e.g., start a {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion thread&lt;!-- (use the chapter title and subtitle in the subject line and include a clickable hyperlink to the chapter in the message)--&gt;)
* Feedback is usually best placed on the chapter's wiki discussion page
* Feedback on the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] (chapter plan) will be provided by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]

===Length (word count)===
{{Anchor|Wordcount}}{{Anchor|Word count}}
* There is no minimum length
* Maximum 4,000 words
** There is no additional 10% allowance
** Words beyond the maximum will not be considered for marking purposes
** Count everything from top to bottom of the editable page (in view mode, not edit mode):
*** Include the title, subtitle, headings, text, tables, figures, references, see also, and external links
** Use this [https://chromewebstore.google.com/detail/word-counter/cbjddaobmdfhbfgdgjocbhklpmclcboe Word Counter] (Google Chrome Extension) or paste the URL into [https://hsuper.tools/web-page-word-counter Webpage Word Counter] (it will overcount by ~100 words) or cut and paste into a word processor
* If you are having difficulties complying with the maximum word count, see [[/Word count|these suggestions]]

===Submission===
* Submit the chapter URL (website address), your Wikiversity user name, and a PDF of the chapter via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
Book chapters will be marked against the following criteria.

===Overview (5%)===
* Scenario: Provide an engaging scenario or case study in a feature box, with an illustrative figure
* Problem statement: Easy to read and understand outline of the key concepts and explanation of practical/real-world problem to be solved
* Focus questions: Establish [[/Focus questions|focus questions]] which align with the sub-title and subsequent heading structure

===Theory (20%)===
* Clearly explain the theoretical framework for understanding the topic
* Select the most relevant psychological theories/models that apply to the problem. Depending on the topic, this may involve focusing on a single theory or comparing and contrasting two or more theories.
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed theory references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Clearly explain and apply the theory(ies)
* Include illustrative examples, such as case studies
* Demonstrate a critical perspective

===Research (25%)===
* Clearly explain how key, peer-reviewed research findings apply to the problem
* Use at least the best dozen or so peer-reviewed research references about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals)
* Include relevant major reviews (such as systematic reviews and meta-analyses)
* [[w:Critical thinking|Critical analyse]] the key research findings, including limitations and implications

===Integration (10%)===
* Integrate discussion of theory and review of relevant research
* Use research to critically inform interpretation and application of the theory(ies)

===Conclusion (5%)===
* Clear and concise communication of key points and take-home messages
* Aligned with the subtitle and focus questions, with implications for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Theme|book theme]]

===Style (20%)===
* Overall
** Present and illustrate the problem and knowledge in an interesting way, using a logical structure, clear layout, correct spelling and grammar, and [[APA style]]
** [[/Readability|Readable]] for a layperson interested in psychological science
** Address the [[#Theme|book theme]] by providing practical, academically sound, self-improvement information
** Address an international audience (i.e., avoid an overly local or national perspective)
** Use default wiki style for paragraph alignment, font colour, type, and size, and heading styles
** Use Australian spelling (e.g., hypothesise, behaviour, fulfilment) rather than American spelling (e.g., hypothesize, behavior, fulfillment)
** Correct grammar (e.g., see [[/Writing tips|writing tips]])
* Structure
** Use a logical heading structure that aligns with the focus questions
** Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] throughout, including for headings and sub-headings
** Use the default heading style (e.g., do not add italics and/or bold)
** Sub-headings are optional
*** Avoid having sections with a single sub-heading — each section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings.
*** If sub-headings are used, provides at least 1 introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections.
* Sentences
** [[w:Narration#Narrative point of view|Narrative point of view]][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/]: In the main text, use [[w:Narration#Third-person|3rd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;it&quot;, &quot;they&quot;). Where [[w:Aside|aside]]s are used, such as examples, case studies, and feature boxes, [[w:First-person narrative|1st person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;) and/or [[w:Narration#Second-person|2nd person perspective]] (e.g., &quot;you&quot;) can work well.
* Paragraphs
** A well-constructed paragraph is generally 3 to 5 sentences (opening sentence, body sentences, and a concluding/linking sentence). Avoid one-sentence paragraphs and overly long paragraphs.
** Paragraphs flow logically
* Use APA style (as much as reasonably possible), paying particular attention to:
** citations
** references (especially capitalisation, italicisation, and providing hyperlinked dois)
** table and figure captions
** quotes (include page numbers)
* Citations
** Claims need citations using APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style throughout the chapter — don't mix and match. For most psychology students, APA style will be the choice.
** Maximum of 3 citations per point (i.e., avoid 4 or more citations together).
* References
** List all cited academic references in APA style or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing_sources|wiki citation style]]. Only use one style.
** Non-academic sources are not used in references. They can be included in the external links section.

===Learning features (5%)===
* Embed interactive learning features such as scenarios/case studies/examples, feature boxes, figures, quizzes, links to relevant Wikipedia and Wikipedia pages, as well as links to key resources via the &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;External links&quot; sections
* Case studies
** Include 1 or more examples, scenarios, or case studies
** They can be true (if so, include citations) or fictional
** Use these examples to enhance understanding of theory, research, focus questions, and/or take-home messages
** Present in a feature box and include a figure
** Consider using a &quot;progressive case study&quot; (i.e., a case study presented in separate parts which describe, for example, the problem, attempt at change, and resolution/outcomes).
** Examples of chapters which make effective use of case studies:
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional abuse|emotional abuse]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Food and fear|food and fear]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Opioid system and human emotion|opioid system and human emotion]] (2019)
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|social support and emotion]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|Feature boxes]]
** Use to highlight key information, but avoid overuse
** There are various ways of creating coloured boxes, but the [[Template:RoundBoxTop|RoundBox]] template is a good option.
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Figures|Figures]]
** Include relevant, accompanying figures (e.g., photos, drawings, diagrams) to facilitate readers' understanding of the concepts
** Figures are accompanied by explanatory captions and be cited at least once in the main text
** For more information, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|How to use figures]]).
* [[Help:Links|Links]]
** In-text (embedded) links: Key words and concepts are [[Making links|linked]] to Wikipedia articles and/or related book chapters. Provide in-text wiki links the ''first time'' that key concepts are mentioned. For example:
*** [[w:Emotion|emotion]] involves physiological, subjective feeling, motivational, and socially expressive aspects. The syntax for creating this link is &lt;nowiki&gt;[[w:Emotion|emotion]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). It is also possible to link to a section on this same page e.g., &amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;[[#Overview|Overview]]&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; will link to the Overview section.
*** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Fitspiration and body image|This chapter]] provides an excellent example of embedded links to Wikiversity pages.
** See also
*** Provide interwiki links to key related Wikiversity book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles
*** Include source in parentheses
** External links
*** Provide at least three links to high quality, relevant external resources
*** Include author and/or source in parentheses
** Published academic sources belong in References
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|Tables]]
** Use accompanying tables to help organise information and communicate concepts to readers
** Tables are accompanied by explanatory APA style captions and are cited in the body text
* [[Help:Quiz|Quizzes]]
** Quiz questions or reflection questions encourage reader engagement
** Focus on core concepts (esp. take-home messages) rather than trivia
** Consider incorporating throughout the chapter
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* '''Actions''': Logged contributions which enhance the quality of other book chapters. Useful actions include:
** '''Edits''': Direct edits which improve past or current chapters (e.g., fix errors, enhance clarity) or flag potential improvements by adding [[Template:Clarification templates|clarification templates]]. [[/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]].
** '''Comments''': Feedback provided on book chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s
** '''Media uploads''': Upload free-to-use educational images to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
** '''{{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion posts'''
* '''Evidence''':
** Provide a [[mw:Help:Lists|numbered list]] with summaries of contributions on your [[Help:User page|Wikiversity user page]], and '''direct links''' that show each change or contribution.&lt;!-- To receive credit, contributions must be publicly logged (i.e., log in to Wikiversity so that the edit is recorded with your user name and time-stamp). Summarise each edit on your user page (in a section called &quot;Social contributions&quot;) --&gt;
** More info: [[/Summarising social contributions|summarising social contributions]]
* '''Marking'''
** Marking of social contributions will be based on a combination of:
*** '''Quantity''':
**** Breadth: number of chapters contributed to
**** Channels: range of communication channels used
*** '''Quality''':
**** Depth/Extent/Thoroughness
**** Insightfulness
**** Practical value
*** '''Timeliness''' — there is generally:
**** Greater value in earlier contributions
**** Lesser value in last-minute contributions
** Marks will be allocated to each clearly evidenced contribution as follows:
*** Minor &lt;= 0.25
*** Moderate 0.50
*** Major 1.00
*** Very significant &gt; 1.00
*** Up to 5 bonus marks may be awarded for exceptional levels of contribution

==Examples==
Examples of high quality motivation and emotion book chapters:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment]]: What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? (2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Illicit drug taking at music festivals|Illicit drug taking at music festivals]]: What motivates young people to take illicit drugs at music festivals? (2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Organisational change motivation|Organisational change motivation]]: How can leaders build a culture of agility, adaptability, and resilience to deal with a constantly changing workplace? (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias|Phobias]]: What are phobias and how can they be dealt with? (2019)

Note that as of 2025, chapters no longer include multimedia presentations.

For more examples, see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}s in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|lists of previous book chapters]]&lt;!-- and the [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Top|top chapters of 2022]] --&gt;.

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) license which is irrevocable. This license gives permission for others to edit and re-use, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment options]] with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/FAQ/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Previous chapters]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:MEBF|Feedback template]]
** [https://docs.google.com/document/d/15NXyApC5i6svEcJAnXv9QeRA-cbojy1m8lKReZgBH60/edit?usp=sharing Marking rubric]
* [[#Socialcontribution|Social contributions]]
** [[/Search for chapters to improve/]]
** [[/Summarising social contributions/]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorials]]
&lt;!-- ** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]] --&gt;
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Google Scholar|Tutorial 05: Google Scholar]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Measuring emotion#Topic development feedback|Tutorial 08: Topic development feedback]]
* Wikiversity
** [[/Feature boxes/]]
** [[/Figures/]]
** [[How to find free-to-use images|Find free images]]
** [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Writing tips/]]
** [[/How to handle a lack of information/|Handling a lack of information]]
** [[/Readability|Readability]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
** [[/Word count|Word count]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>bpevd8aascdohhpkhyqmzvh6ns6cxjx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Numerical Methods</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>119778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816587</id>
      <parentid>2815437</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2816587</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="tmk41kst3x4k09evvov8iq38fed86tc" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260615.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>tmk41kst3x4k09evvov8iq38fed86tc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816589</id>
      <parentid>2816587</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:59:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2816589</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="dtp10qsloiopiz8qj8d45r3t65miip5" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260616.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>dtp10qsloiopiz8qj8d45r3t65miip5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816591</id>
      <parentid>2816589</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T10:00:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2816591</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="qo9t9tdd5f4yi0o7ewl2jsexgni3mxm" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260622.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>qo9t9tdd5f4yi0o7ewl2jsexgni3mxm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816593</id>
      <parentid>2816591</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T10:01:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2816593</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="rk0b35xyehfjsefgyv4jxn490afi3jy" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260623.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>rk0b35xyehfjsefgyv4jxn490afi3jy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Progress and Prospects in Parkinson's Research/Therapy/Symptomatic Relief/Festination</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>135145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816442</id>
      <parentid>2816429</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T12:14:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Acivelife123|Acivelife123]] ([[User_talk:Acivelife123|talk]]) to last version by [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|1234qwer1234qwer4]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
      <origin>2389514</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2512" sha1="jm3s4tdzc0b3ac6qyimrg3g7y91o1zb" xml:space="preserve">==Background==

[[W:Festination|'''Festination''']] is a common PD symptom, which consists of taking very short rapid paces and sometimes breaking into a run.  it arises from a postural defect.  The body bends forward shifting the centre of gravity so that the patient takes an instinctive small step forward in order to maintain balance.

==Research==

{{font|color=maroon|2'''010'''}}

Morris  et al &lt;ref&gt; Morris, Meg, E.; Marti, Clarissa, L. and Schenkman, Margaret L.  {{font|color=maroon|'''(2010)'''}}  {{font|color=fuchsia|'''Full Text'''}}  Phys. Ther. 90 (2) 280–288. ''Striding Out With Parkinson Disease: Evidence-Based Physical Therapy for Gait Disorders'' http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816030/?tool=pmcentrez &lt;/ref&gt; evaluate the best options in physiotherapy for the treatment of gait disorders arising from PD.  They concluded:-

&lt;blockquote&gt; ''Comprehensive, client-centered physical therapy for people with PD is based on compensatory strategies to bypass the defective basal ganglia, strategies to improve motor learning and performance through practice, management of secondary sequelae affecting the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems, and fall education, as well as on assisting people to make lifelong changes in physical activity habits. The extent to which strategies, exercises, and health education are used varies according to individual needs and changes over time as the person ages and the disease progresses. Overall, the aim is to enable the person with PD to live well by providing effective physical therapy interventions at optimal times to promote health and well-being and by educating the individual regarding long-term self-management strategies.'' &lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Further Reading==

{{font|color=maroon|'''Today'''}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;'''Use the following links to query the PubMed, PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases using the Search terms:- Parkinson's_Disease Vitamin_E.'''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;'''This will list the latest papers on this topic.  You are invited to update this page to reflect such recent results, pointing out their significance. '''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Parkinson's_Disease%20%20Festination Pubmed (abstracts)]

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/?term=Parkinson's_Disease+Festination Pubmed_Central (Full_Text)]

[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&amp;as_sdt=0,5&amp;q=Parkinson%27s+Disease+Festination. Google_Scholar]

==Related Pages==
==References==
&lt;references&gt;

{{CourseCat}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>139384</id>
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      <id>2816445</id>
      <parentid>2816334</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T13:29:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <origin>2816445</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3088" sha1="l7xa5g1vwf6al8cssqfod4s8pfg2w1v" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260622.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260622.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260622.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260622-1.pdf|B]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816453</id>
      <parentid>2816339</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T13:48:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5296" sha1="0nhwfktjx3tc5046nmuwht9016qmmpg" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Permutations ([[Media:Laurent.6.Permutation.6A.20230711.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6B.20251225.pdf|B.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20260622.pdf|C.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Permutation.6C.20240528.pdf|D.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|A.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

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  <page>
    <title>Universal Bibliography</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>171301</id>
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      <text bytes="49609" sha1="0e68sfqcu91tmwc9lqeqj9dmb2knspf" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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      <text bytes="52800" sha1="l1pn4r38etu87cnc81v8tvb7an00rvv" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]


Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999) 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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      <text bytes="55318" sha1="qdj4w0gd814q685m7hctx7tkhq2svz6" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]


Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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      <text bytes="55634" sha1="62sz60k7bws16oaog4l5jbqf0otq4hi" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
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      <text bytes="57492" sha1="pimo6beijfxug2sp3xel3w7870i8h7z" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ]
1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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      <text bytes="58750" sha1="56qtpdltyy6j3kllopqrdc4gxgiylmf" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990.
[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Dictionary of National Biography
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Languages==
World
*Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie. Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Anatole V Lyovin, Brett Kessler and William R Leben. An Introduction to the Languages of the World. 2nd Ed: 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RQGTDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Asya Pereltsvaig. Languages of the World: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8q06xer0vHkC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages. Vol 1 (Classification). Stanford University Press. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WAMbAAAAIAAJ]
*Bernard Comrie. The World's Major Languages. 2nd Ed: 2009: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9S0rDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*George L. Campbell and Gareth King. Compendium of the World's Languages. 3rd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Martin D Joachim. Languages of the World: Cataloging Issues and Problems. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6u18PtO0BoQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Prehistory
*Rudolf Botha and Chris Knight (eds). The Prehistory of Language. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36tLTfV_hLcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*G Révész. The Origins and Prehistory of Language. Longmans, Green and Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GxRZAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Tore Janson. The History of Languages: An Introduction. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pE2N7noPfEoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tore Janson. Speak: A Short History of Languages. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mAgGOU2XmCAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nicholas Ostler. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. Preface dated 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mz2kxr6v2X4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven Roger Fischer. History of Language. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5i1Ql7QQy0kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A S Diamond. The History and Origin of Language. 1959: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjcGAQAAIAAJ]. Routledge Revivals. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P5jiEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Henry Sweet. The History of Language. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PC1GGpv7vlsC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Social history
*Peter Burke and Roy Porter (eds). The Social History of Language. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oyRshxHVV5sC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Story
*Charles Barber. The Story of Language. Pan Books. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gx0RAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:en:Mario Pei|Mario Pei]]. The Story of Language. 1949. Lippincott. Revised Ed: 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lqEviMzgv7wC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aaCvFv11ZJ4C 67] The Literary Guide 82 (May 1952)

Maltese
*See [[w:mt:Bibljografija tal-lingwa Maltija]]

Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino)
*See [[w:lad:Vikipedya:Bibliografia del djudeo-espanyol]]

Japan and Korea
*Nicolas Tranter (ed). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QB3DD8qSVnAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jieun Kiaer and Ben Cagan. Pragmatics in Korean and Japanese Translation. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnJ_EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Korean
*J Marshall Unger. The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages. University of Hawaii Press. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sYULAQAAMAAJ]

Japonic
*Michinori Shimoji. An Introduction to the Japonic Languages: Grammatical Sketches of Japanese Dialects and Ryukyuan Languages. Brill. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TO77EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yosuke Igarashi, Kenan Celik, Tatsuya Hirako and Hayato Aoi. Word-Prosodic Systems of Japonic Languages. Brill. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B_3CEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japanese and Ryukyuan
*Moriyo Shimabukuro. The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: A Reconstruction. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n_V5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japan
*Masayoshi Shibatani. The Languages of Japan. CUP. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sD-MFTUiPYgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series
*Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics

Japanese
*Haruhiko Kindaichi. The Japanese Language. Tuttle. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s_UZAQAAIAAJ] 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PdzkyasVMMoC] 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Osamu Mizutani. Japanese: The Spoken Language in Japanese Life. Japan Times. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jZsPAAAAYAAJ]
*Charles Berlitz. Passport to Japanese. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSQ04TeVfWYC]

Periodicals
*Japanese Language and Literature. (Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese.) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?&amp;id=QpkmAQAAIAAJ]

Introductions
*A E Backhouse. The Japanese Language: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vawPAAAAYAAJ]
*Richard Bowring and Haruko Uryū Laurie. An Introduction to Modern Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gu3k3eiOXWAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Understanding
*Yasuko Obana. Understanding Japanese: A Handbook for Learners and Teachers. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I9IPAAAAYAAJ]

Learn
*Yuko Fukuroi. Learn Japanese. Institute of Asian Studies. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0SJkAAAAMAAJ]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: New College Text: Volume IV. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rxwxLVwW2t0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*John Young and Kimiko Nakajima-Okano. Learn Japanese: Pattern Approach. University of Maryland. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pG1AsovGf3AC]
*Nobuko Mizutani. Let's Learn Japanese. (Radio Japan). 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4urrPQAACAAJ]
*Senko K Maynard. Learning Japanese for Real: A Guide to Grammar, Use, and Genres of the Nihongo World. University of Hawaii Press. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QF4EEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Miwa Kai. Listen &amp; Learn Japanese. 1959. Reprinted 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wBrYftZU6z4C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Courses
*Fudeko Obazawa Reekie. A First Course in Japanese. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvmrFBsaXOkC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Intensive Course in Japanese. Language Services Co Ltd. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SRhIAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0ytIAAAAMAAJ]
*Akiyama. Nucleus Course in Japanese. Institute of Modern Languages. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iGw-AAAAIAAJ]
*Oreste Vaccari and Enko Elisa Vaccari. Complete Course of Japanese Conversation-Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x9MTAQAAMAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. An Introductory Course in Japanese. 1897. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hmvl19e6ld4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Essential
*Essential Japanese: Speak Japanese with Confidence. Tuttle. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aJzTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lynne Strugnell. Essential Japanese. Berlitz. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vxBU3vjytQC]
*Samuel E Martin. Essential Japanese: An Introduction to the Standard Colloquial Language. 1954. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rx5kAAAAMAAJ]
*Helmut Morsbach and Kazue Kurebayashi. Essential Japanese: A Guidebook to Language and Culture. Penguin Books.1990. ISBN 9780140101881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3rqgQ7zW3AsC]

Ultimate
*Ultimate Japanese
**Suguru Akutsu. Ultimate Japanese: Advanced. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VV4RAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GnMqAQAAIAAJ 33] The Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese 111 (No 2: October 1999)

Easy
*Samuel E Martin. Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication. 1st Ed: 1957. 2nd Ed: 1959. 3rd Ed: 1962. 4th Ed: 2006: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CKHTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jack Seward. Easy Japanese. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jQIraVXUxN0C]
*Fumiko Koide. Easy Japanese. Nippon Kyooiku Kiki Fukyu Center Company. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q4JEAQAAMAAJ]
*Emiko Konomi. Easy Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese Quickly! [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mjtRDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 

Basic
*Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese. [Practice Makes Perfect]. Premium 3rd Ed: 2023.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JmeYEAAAQBAJ]
*NTC's Basic Japanese. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hLyZCKpa8jMC]
*Samuel E. Martin and Eriko Sato. Basic Japanese: Learn to Speak Japanese in 10 Easy Lessons. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F1RSDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Shoko Hamano and Takae Tsujioka. Basic Japanese: A Grammar and Workbook. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l0fJAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Demystified, Dummies
*Eriko Sato. Japanese Demystified. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ak7AlXKi3pYC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Eriko Sato. Japanese For Dummies. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Oi6lpE_NC-wC] Hiroko Chiba and Erik Sato. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gql7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate
*Michael L Kluemper and Lisa Berkson. Intermediate Japanese Textbook. 2022. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7hl2EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Intermediate Japanese Workbook. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4qB-EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hiyaku: An Intermediate Japanese Course. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9ZDtCQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Haruko Laurie and Richard Bowring. Cambridge Intermediate Japanese. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E1wLAQAAMAAJ]
*Yasuko Ito Watt and Richard Rubinger. Readers Guide to Intermediate Japanese: A Quick Reference to Written Expressions. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S8ACEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Intermediate to advanced
*The Routledge Intermediate to Advanced Japanese Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcMfEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Advanced
*Noriko Ishihara and Magara Maeda. Advanced Japanese: Communication in Context. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gmBQDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*An Introduction to Advanced Spoken Japanese. Inter-university Center for Japanese Language Studies. Delmer M Brown. 1987. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Og96QDPsx18C]

For scientists and engineers
*Edward E. Daub, R Byron Bird and Nobuo Inoue. Basic Technical Japanese. 科学技術日本語の基礎. University of Wisconsin Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oN23JJhjFpwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Readings
*Joseph K Yamagiwa (ed). Readings in Japanese Language and Linguistics. University of Michigan Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=76wPAAAAYAAJ]

History
*Bjarke Frellesvig. A History of the Japanese Language. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lone Takeuchi. The Structure and History of Japanese: From Yamatokotoba to Nihongo. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sr8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Ohno Susumu. The Origin of the Japanese Language. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pqcPAAAAYAAJ]
*N A Syromiatnikov. The Ancient Japanese Language. Nauka Publishing House. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OB5kAAAAMAAJ]

*Yaeko Sato Habein. The History of the Japanese Written Language. University of Tokyo Press. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xh1kAAAAMAAJ]

Vocabulary
*Akira Miura. Essential Japanese Vocabulary. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZZvTAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol and Nobuo Akiyama. Japanese Vocabulary. Barron's. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Aa6PAAACAAJ]

Words
*Akira Miura. Japanese Words &amp; Their Uses. Charles E Tuttle. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MVVzBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Verbs
*Complete Japanese Verb Guide. Tuttle. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I_EPCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*P Suski. Japanese Verbs. (Super Review). Research &amp; Education Association. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9t6oHZh5gecC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naoko Chino. Japanese Verbs at a Glance. Kodansha International. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-8AjAQAAIAAJ]
*600 Basic Japanese Verbs. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wZgdBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Roland A Lange. 501 Japanese Verbs. Barron's. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ANQXAAAAIAAJ]
**201 Japanese Verbs. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Dve2QgAACAAJ]

*Rita Lampkin. Japanese Verbs and Essentials of Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of Japanese. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P_CyQgAACAAJ]

*Suski. Conjugation of Japanese Verbs in the Modern Spoken Japanese. 1942. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SZIPAAAAYAAJ]
*G F Verbeck. A Synopsis of All the Conjugations of the Japanese Verbs. 1887. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEJlAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Ready Conjugator of Japanese Verbs and Adjectives [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jrNDAQAAIAAJ]

Adjectives
*Ann Tarumoto. Complete Japanese Adjective Guide. Tuttle. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SIC4CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Idioms
*Kodansha's Dictionary of Basic Japanese Idioms. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQ5gyagWePMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Nobuo Akiyama and Carol Akiyama. Japanese Idioms. Barron's. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V5YPAAAAYAAJ]
*Michael L Maynard and Senko K Maynard. 101 Japanese Idioms: Understanding Japanese Language and Culture Through Popular Phrases. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HXI-Xvv5dMYC]

Grammar
*Stefan Kaiser, Yasuko Ichikawa, Noriko Kobayashi and Hilofumi Yamamoto. Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. 2001. 2nd Ed: 2013: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vJH3CumpiZEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Naomi H McGloin, Mutsuko Endo Hudson, Fumiko Nazikian and Tomomi Kakegawa. Modern Japanese Grammar: A Practical Guide. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qcdBDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Yuki Johnson. Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=keIZAQAAIAAJ]
*Masahiro Tanimori and Eriko Sato. Essential Japanese Grammar. Tuttle. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CUXRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Zeljko Cipris and Shoko Hamano. Making Sense of Japanese Grammar: A Clear Guide through Common Problems. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GZ0BEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Carol Akiyama and Nobuo Akiyama. Pocket Japanese Grammar. 4th Ed: 2020: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aga9DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Japanese Grammar. 3rd Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cO5wDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harold G Henderson. Handbook of Japanese Grammar. 1945. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NYEBAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Sociolinguistics
*Roy Andrew Miller. The Japanese Language in Contemporary Japan: Some Sociolinguistic Observations. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9RxkAAAAMAAJ]

Translation
*Yoko Hasegawa. The Routledge Course in Japanese Translation. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5kX1O4bCx_oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Judy Wakabayashi. Japanese–English Translation: An Advanced Guide. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nqf7DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ryukyuan
*Handbook of the Ryukyuan Languages: History, Structure, and Use [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g_FeCAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Television==
*Rob Young. The Magic Box: Viewing Britain Through the Rectangular Window. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fH8NEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/aug/13/the-magic-box-by-rob-young-review-a-spirited-history-of-television]

Magazines
*The Radio Times
*TV Times

Newspaper television reviews etc

United Kingdom
*A A Gill. Paper View: The Best of the Sunday Times Television Columns.

*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;Television and Radio Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. 1991.  Middle of newspaper. The page number of the listings is given on the front page. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column. These reviews are printed on the last page of the &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; section of the newspaper, for issues of the newspaper where &quot;Life &amp; Times&quot; is a separate section. Otherwise they are printed in the middle of newspaper.
*&quot;Choice&quot; or &quot;TV Choice&quot; in &quot;Television and Radio&quot;. The Times. 1992 to 1993. Penultimate page of newspaper. These reviews are printed in the body of the listings, and not in a separate column.
*&quot;Choice&quot;. The Times. 1993 to 1997. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*&quot;Television Choice&quot;. The Times. 1997 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Third page from back of newspaper.
*&quot;Review&quot;. The Times. 1994 onwards. Mondays to Fridays. Penultimate page of newspaper.
*There are reviews in:
**The Independent, The Guardian, The Financial Times, and The Daily Telegraph

Netherlands
*&quot;TV: Films Video&quot; in &quot;televisie en radio woensdag&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.
*&quot;show&quot;. Limburgs Dagblad.

Japan
*&quot;Today's Choice&quot; in &quot;TV/Radio&quot;. The Japan Times.

Music
*Tele-Tunes

Archives and listings
*[https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/ NHK Archives]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/ Chronicle]. [https://www.nhk.or.jp/archives/chronicle/timetable/ Timetables].

==Cinema==
*Edgar Anstey, &quot;The Cinema&quot; (1944) 172 The Spectator 10 (No 6028: 7 January 1944). Includes &quot;Review of the Year&quot;.

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Culture==
*Eagleton. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z2EdDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Highmore. Culture. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2teoCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jenks. Culture. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6Litru5-ImAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Crane. The Production of Culture. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DGs5DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Calhoun and Sennett. Practicing Culture. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NbO4CDIWhn4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Mead. The Study of Culture at a Distance. 1953. 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Upv9RZfPe8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Measuring Culture. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0se_DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Popular culture
*Kornhaber. [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2025/06/american-pop-culture-decline/682578/ Is This the Worst-Ever Era of American Pop Culture?]. The Atlantic. 5 May 2025. (June 2025 issue).

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
===Asia===
====Far East====
Bibliography
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
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      <comment>Added my name to participants list</comment>
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      <text bytes="960" sha1="hwabosm6y8x4j1fwynl25mb107jf1zl" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Sainteniger Asad, Medical Scientist. --&gt;
Adopt this portal by adding your name [[{{titleparts|2}}/Participants|here]]:
*Dr Kunal Ashok Chaudhari SinSeptember 2012‎ with adding content to [[Draft:Medicine|Medicine]] --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 May 2018 (UTC)
*Dr Kunal Ashok Chaudhari 29 January 2024
*Dr Andres Alberto Diaz Jaramillo 11 Marzo 2024
* Homzy Chaputula - 23 April 2020
* Mwanja Moses-since 29 April 2022
* Jakobina Kapweya - 26 May 2022
* Evaristo Mateyo - 29 June 2022
* Osama mohamed - 11 August 2022
* Adham wael - 11 August 2022
* Utkrisht Awasthi - 31 August 2023
*Lerato Koza -25 October 2023
* Arpita Singh - 24 December 2023
*Steven Smith- 24 December 2023
*Kevin Christopher - 19 December 2024
*Lindokuhle yolokaz
*Ashley Ireland - 09 September 2025
*Navruzov Abdulmalik - 13 January 2026
*Sam Garrard - 22 June 2026</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:53:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>Update for 2026</comment>
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      <text bytes="24893" sha1="5g172li05huihog70opirxjtqkcb2ol" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
 |year       = 2025
 |month      = 08
 |day        = 14
 |hour       = 23
 |minute     = 0
 |second     = 0
 |event = this assessment is due
}}
--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be a lifelong learner — evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*#* References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* self-introduction which links to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have made at least 3 different types of contributions:
** direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
** provide useful feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topic talk pages)
** post to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that the author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than 6 key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of editing another chapter, comment provided on another chapter's talk page, and posting to the discussion forum.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of social contributions. However, there is at least 1 area for improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan covers basic theory and research about the topic, but lacks detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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      <text bytes="24892" sha1="hdnmks4edv20ll5n4xfsr4xcn1x5bs2" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development — Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;&lt;!--
{{countdown
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 |month      = 08
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 |hour       = 23
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 |event = this assessment is due
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--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be a lifelong learner — evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have made at least 3 different types of contributions:
** direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
** provide useful feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topic talk pages)
** post to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that the author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than 6 key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of editing another chapter, comment provided on another chapter's talk page, and posting to the discussion forum.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of social contributions. However, there is at least 1 area for improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan covers basic theory and research about the topic, but lacks detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Chapter plan and user page''
&lt;!-- ---------------------------------- ---&gt;
&lt;!-- Count down --&gt;
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--&gt; &lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}&lt;/div&gt;
{{TOCright}}
==Overview==
* Weight: 10%
* Due: {{/Due}}
* Tasks: Develop a plan for the book chapter:
** Create a Wikiversity user account
** Select or negotiate an approved topic in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 table of contents]]
** Build wiki editing skills by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] which consists of:
*** Title and sub-title
*** Headings (and possibly sub-headings)
*** Key points for each section (and sub-section)
*** Figure (at least 1)
*** Learning feature (plan at least 1)
** Create a Wikiversity user page
*** Introduce yourself
*** Summarise at least three different types of social contributions on your Wikiversity user page
* Follow the detailed [[#Instructions|instructions]] and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
* Guidance for this assignment is provided in Module 1:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction|Lecture 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Lecture 02]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]]

==Marking and feedback==
*Submissions will be marked according to the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]
*Feedback will be provided to help guide drafting of the full [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
*Marks and feedback should be returned before Census Date (end of Week 4)
**Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
**Written feedback will be available via the topic's Wikiversity discussion page
*Follow up if you don't understand or would like more feedback

==Extensions and late submissions==
* Extension requests require an Extension Application Form to be submitted via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} with appropriate documentary evidence
* Submissions are accepted up to 3 days late (-10% per day late)
* If you don't submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit before Census Date (end of Week 4) is recommended

==Learning outcomes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the unit's [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:90%; margin: auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be professional — display initiative and drive, and use organisation skills to plan and manage workload
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| Be a lifelong learner — evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Instructions==
Follow these instructions for the topic development:
* Develop a plan for a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|chapter]] which consists of:
*# Title and sub-title (pre-approved or negotiated)
*# Overview
*# 3-5 other top-level headings
*#* Key points for each heading/sub-heading with citations
*#* 1+ relevant figure(s)
*#* 1+ actual or planned learning feature
*# Conclusion
*# See also
*#* 2+ internal links (1 to Wikiversity (e.g., another book chapter) and 1 to a Wikipedia article)
*# References (at least 6, which are cited)
*# External links
*#* 2+ external links (to external resources)
*# Wikiversity user page
*#* Self-introduction
*#* A link to the chapter being worked on
*#* Social contributions in a numbered list with a summary and direct link to evidence:
*#** 1 direct edit to improve another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 talk page comment on another book chapter (past or present)
*#** 1 {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion post
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Generative AI]] may be used with appropriate acknowledgement
* &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length. Top-ranked topic development [[#Examples|examples]] range from 875 to 2900 words (average 1700).
* Submit a PDF of the topic development via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}, with the title, sub-title, and user name in the submission comments

==Template==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}

==Marking criteria==
[[File:Balanced scales.svg|right|125px]]
{{anchor|Title}}
===Title and sub-title (10%)===
* Use the approved wording, [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|casing]], etc. for the title and sub-title (i.e., as per the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}})
* Do not include additional bold, italics, or change font size from the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]]
* Do not include user name; authorship is as per the page's editing history

{{anchor|Headings}}

===Headings (10%)===
* Use the standard headings recommended in the [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|book chapter template]] (i.e., Overview, Conclusion, References, See also, External links)
* Provide 3 to 6 informative top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion. These sections may each contain 2 to 5 sub-headings; avoid sections with only 1 sub-heading.
* The top-level headings should align with the sub-title and focus questions
* Headings should use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]])

{{anchor|Overview}}

===Overview (10%)===
* A scenario or case study (real or fictional), in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
* At least 3 bullet points outlining the &quot;problem&quot; (i.e., explain the key concept(s) and importance of the topic)—to be expanded into sentences and paragraphs for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* 3 to 5 [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]] that unpack the topic and address the sub-title, in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]

{{anchor|Key points}}

===Key points (10%)===
* At least 3 bullet points per section (i.e., per heading or sub-heading)
* Overview the most relevant theory(ies), including key citations
* Overview the most relevant research, including key citations
* Provide at least 1 introductory bullet point before branching into sub-sections
* Address the problem (i.e., answer the question in the sub-title)

{{Anchor|Figure}}
===Figure (10%)===
* Display at least 1 relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
* Number each figure sequentially (e.g., Figure 1, Figure 2 etc.)
* Include a descriptive caption that connects the figure to the text
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1)
* Optimise image display size to make it easy to read (i.e., not too big or too small)

{{Anchor|Learning feature}}
===Learning feature (10%)===
* In addition to the scenario in the Overview, include at least 1 of the following learning features e.g.,:
** Another scenario/case study: A follow-up or second scenario/case study in the main body in a [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature box]]
** Internal (wiki) links:
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant book chapter
*** At least 1 embedded link to a relevant Wikipedia article
* Quiz question with correct and incorrect answers
** Table with an APA style caption

{{anchor|References}}
===References (10%)===
* Provide at least 6 APA style references to the best peer-reviewed sources about the topic (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|list of motivation and emotion journals]])
* Each source should be cited at least once in the key points
* Include a balance of key theoretical and key research articles

{{anchor|Resources}}

===Resources (10%)===
* '''See also''' (heading): Provide at least 2 internal (wiki) links (1 to a Wikiversity article; 1 to a Wikipedia article)
** Provide at least 1 bullet-pointed:
*** [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter
*** internal wiki link to a relevant Wikipedia page
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., Book chapter, 2023)
** Use alphabetical order
* '''External links''' (heading): Provide at least 2 external links to key internet resources
** Provide at least 2 bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]]s to key internet resources (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia or academic articles)
** The linked text is the same as the name of the target page using [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
** Include the source in parentheses after the link (e.g., The Conversation)
** Use alphabetical order

{{anchor|User page}}

===User page (10%)===
* Create a Wikiversity user page for your user account
* Edit the user page to provide information about yourself
* Recommended headings:
** About me
** Book chapter I'm working on
*** Include an internal (wiki) link to the chapter page
** Social contributions
* Consider linking to your other online profiles

{{anchor|Social contribution}}
{{anchor|Socialcontribution}}

===Social contribution (10%)===
* On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have made at least 3 different types of contributions:
** direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
** provide useful feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topic talk pages)
** post to the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum&lt;!-- or contribute to the {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} X hashtag --&gt;
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|More info]]

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that the author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than 6 key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of editing another chapter, comment provided on another chapter's talk page, and posting to the discussion forum.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of social contributions. However, there is at least 1 area for improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan covers basic theory and research about the topic, but lacks detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Examples==
;About
* Below are some examples of topic development submissions which received 100%
* The links go to snapshots of pages as submitted for the topic development; these are not the final book chapter submissions
* It is possible to get full marks using only bullet points, however some examples below go beyond the requirements for 100% (e.g., involve drafting a full chapter)

;2025
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2729232 Metacognition and emotional regulation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Elina.jean.r&amp;oldid=2726043 Elina.jean.r]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Motivation_for_using_AI_companions&amp;oldid=2728874 Motivation for using AI companions] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3254978&amp;oldid=2727975 U3254978]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;oldid=2740305 Self-determination theory and social media use] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3237996&amp;oldid=2739659 U3237996]

;2024
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2024/Groups_and_individual_motivation_reduction&amp;oldid=2644110 Groups and individual motivation reduction] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216883&amp;oldid=2644098 U3216883]

;2023
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Bedtime_procrastination&amp;oldid=2550954 Bedtime procrastination] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3227684&amp;oldid=2550752 U3227684]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2023/Conspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;oldid=2551397 Conspiracy theory motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223114&amp;oldid=2552580 U3223114]
&lt;!-- * The topic development requirements and weighting increased in 2023 from 5% to 10%. So, the examples from 2022 and earlier may not warrant full marks if assessed against the 2023-present criteria. They should nevertheless serve as useful guides.

;2022
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Compassion&amp;oldid=2420004 Compassion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3203545&amp;oldid=2420008 U3203545]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Childhood_trauma_and_subsequent_drug_use&amp;oldid=2429214 Childhood trauma and subsequent drug use] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3210431&amp;oldid=2419862 U3210431]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment&amp;oldid=2420355 Disappointment] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3216256&amp;oldid=2420416 U3216256]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Fear&amp;oldid=2419996 Fear] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Icantchooseone&amp;oldid=2419390 Icantchooseone]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Financial_investing,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420729 Financial investing, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3217287&amp;oldid=2420715 U3217287]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Money_priming,_motivation,_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2420693 Money priming, motivation, and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Molzaroid&amp;oldid=2418874 Molzaroid]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Nature_therapy&amp;oldid=2420231 Nature therapy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:Ana028&amp;oldid=2420232 Ana028]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Video_conferencing_fatigue&amp;oldid=2421389 Video conferencing fatigue] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3211603&amp;oldid=2418246 U3211603]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Window_of_tolerance&amp;oldid=2419756 Window of tolerance] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3223109&amp;oldid=2417630 U3223109]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;oldid=2421675 Work and flow] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3213441&amp;oldid=2420956 U3213441]

;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] — [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]
--&gt;

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Creative Commons 4.0 ShareAlike] (CC-BY-SA 4.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. These licenses are irrevocable.For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under these licenses, discuss [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Alternative|alternative assessment]] options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* Structure
** [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|Book chapter structure template]]
** [[/Checklist|Topic development — Checklist]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|General feedback]]
** [[Template:METF|Feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|Using generative AI]]
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Navigation}}
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion guidelines]]</text>
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      <text bytes="39208" sha1="hxu60vzzglkn6vya6yj43mnkov2fc3n" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOEDITSECTION__&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This is the ethics statement for ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}''. This statement has been adapted from the principles of the [https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines Committee on Publication Ethics].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://publicationethics.org/files/Code%20of%20Conduct_2.pdf|title=Code of conduct and best practice guidelines for journal editors|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=COPE|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://publicationethics.org/files/Code%20of%20conduct%20for%20publishers%20FINAL_1_0_0.pdf|title=Code of conduct and best practice guidelines for publishers|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=COPE|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|&amp;nbsp;WikiJournal of Medicine is a member of this ethics organization.}} In addition, the journal follows the [http://www.icmje.org/recommendations ICMJE’s Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals]. This statement covers the code of ethics for the ''editor-in-chief'', ''editorial board members'', ''associate editors'', ''peer reviewers'' and ''authors''. ''Editors'' refer to ''editorial board members'' and ''associate editors''.

Many of the issues are common to all of academic publishing. In addition, the unique Wikipedia-integration features of WikiJournals require specific note: [[#Wiki authorship|large group authorship]], [[#Wiki attribution|attribution]], [[#Wiki ownership|ownership]], [[#Wiki preprint definition|what constitutes a preprint server]], and [[#Wiki dual publication|dual publication]].


==Duties of the authors==
When ''authors'' submit their works they agree to that their content may be kept permanently on a Wikimedia project, and that author requests for removal of their content may not be approved.

{{anchor|Wiki authorship}}
===Author attribution===
Named ''authors'' must have contributed to all of the following aspects of a submitted article, unless otherwise stated in a section of the work that details the contributions of each named author:
# Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND
# Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND
# Final approval of the version to be published; AND
# Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.
Contributors who do not meet all of these requirements can still be included in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Additional_information_section|acknowledgements section]].

The corresponding ''author'' is expected to correspond for the rest of the named ''authors'', including submitting the authorship declaration forms, listing conflicts of interest, etc. The corresponding ''author'' must provide a contact address (or several) at which they can reasonably be contacted for questions pertaining to the works content. This address should have the reasonable expectation of being contactable for the foreseeable future.

If a large amount of material (typically &gt;1 paragraph or &gt;10% of total) is imported from a compatible collaborative platform (e.g. Wikipedia) the author list must include a hyperlink to the full list of contributors (typically as a hyperlinked &quot;''et al''&quot;). For more detail see [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Draft_of_ethics_statement#Acknowledgement of sources|Acknowledgement of sources]]. This is considered as a form of &quot;Group authorship&quot; as per the guidelines of the Council of Scientific editors, since they effectively contributed to criteria 1 and 2 of the ICMJE author requirements (above). Contributors listed on such a hyperlinked page do not necessarily need to satisfy criteria 3 and 4.

====Authorship disputes====
Discussions regarding which people to include in the author list of a work, and in which order, should be handled among the contributors and be based on facts. 

====Confidentiality====
''Authors'' should be given by real names in their articles, with a contact address for at least one corresponding author. Readers may potentially infer the identity of any pseudonymous username used by ''authors'' when contributing to the article online.

''Authors '' have the option to keep the article and/or their names confidential to the public and ''peer reviewers'' until article publication, by requesting such processing in the authorship declaration form.

;Further reading
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/2003pdf12_0.pdf How to handle authorship disputes: a guide for new researchers]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*''[http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html Defining the Role of Authors and Contributors]'', by [[w:ICMJE_recommendations|ICMJE]]
*[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/white-paper-on-publication-ethics/2-2-authorship-and-authorship-responsibilities/ ''Authorship and Authorship Responsibilities''], by [[w:Council_of_Science_Editors|CSE]]
*''[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/cse-policies/approved-by-the-cse-board-of-directors/cse-recommendations-for-group-author-articles-in-scientific-journals-and-bibliometric-databases/ Recommendations for Group-Author works in Scientific Journals and Bibliometric Databases]'', by [[w:Council_of_Science_Editors|CSE]]

===Originality of publication and plagiarism===
The work must not contain plagiarised material of any kind. This includes:
* Unattributed text, images, or data that is copied from any other source 
* Unattributed ideas, concepts, or analysis from any other source
* Material that is copied from the ''authors' ''own published works and without attribution or agreement of the editor of that work

Any significant overlap with another paper must be cited in the work. Any copyrighted material included must have the consent of the copyright holder, in addition to being attributed.

Each submission must be checked for possible plagiarism before consideration for inclusion in the journal by the ''editorial board''. The ''peer review coordinator'' of the submission is responsible for carrying out this task. 

;Further reading 
* ''[https://publicationethics.org/files/Web_A29298_COPE_Text_Recycling.pdf Guidelines on text recycling]'', by COPE &amp; BioMed Central 
* ''[https://publicationethics.org/files/u2/02A_Plagiarism_Submitted.pdf Plagiarism handling process]'', by COPE

{{anchor|Wiki dual publication}}
===Duplicate, redundant or concurrent submission and publication===
''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' cannot commit to peer review and publication of a work that has been submitted elsewhere for peer review and publication without explicit written consent from the other publisher. However, where the other publisher agrees, and  [http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/publishing-and-editorial-issues/overlapping-publications.html ICMJE] and [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/redundant-duplicate-publication-published-article COPE guidelines] are followed, co-publication in multiple journals can be considered at the ''editor's'' discretion. Appropriate content that is dual-published in the journal and Wikipedia is done so under a creative commons license.

;Further reading
*''[http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/publishing-and-editorial-issues/overlapping-publications.html Overlapping publication guidelines]'' by the [[w:ICMJE recommendations|ICMJE]]
*''[https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts/redundant-duplicate-publication-published-article Redundant (duplicate) publication in a published article]]'' by [[w:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
{{anchor|Wiki attribution}}

===Acknowledgement of sources===
Sources of information, ideas, text and images must be acknowledged. Inline citations must be included to previous literature in support of claims made. Original authors must be referenced for any quoted text or images used under a creative commons license. If a material is imported from a compatible collaborative platform (e.g. Wikipedia), attribution depends on the content type:
*Images, videos or other media: Attribution and license type at the end of the [[Template:Fig|figure legend]]
*Text less than 1 paragraph, or 10% of final work: A hyperlink to the full contributor list must be included in the 'Acknowledgements' section
*Text more than 1 paragraph, or 10% of final work: A hyperlink to the full contributor list must be included in the author list (typically as a hyperlinked &quot;''et al''&quot;) - For more detail, see [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Draft_of_ethics_statement#Duties of the authors|Duties of the authors]]

Cited sources should be from reliable, published sources, preferably peer-reviewed, secondary sources. ''Authors'' should read sources before citing them, and their statements should accurately represent the cited sources.

''Peer reviewers'' and ''editors'' should only recommend references to be added to a work where they are relevant and beneficial to the work, without unduly compelling ''authors'' to cite their own publications, or those from a WikiJournal. {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|Medical articles have the additional requirement that clinical statements should ideally reference secondary sources (e.g. review articles) or tertiary sources (e.g. clinical guidelines and meta-analyses). Primary sources should be avoided where possible, in order to avoid unreliable or preliminary information, (e.g. in vitro, or animal results) which don't hold in later clinical trials.
}}

;Further reading
*''[[w:WP:RS|Guidelines for Reliable Sources]]'', by Wikipedia
*''[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/cse-policies/approved-by-the-cse-board-of-directors/cse-recommendations-for-group-author-articles-in-scientific-journals-and-bibliometric-databases/ Recommendations for Group-Author works in Scientific Journals and Bibliometric Databases]'', by [[w:Council_of_Science_Editors|CSE]]
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal of Science=*''[[w:WP:SCIRS|Guidelines for Reliable Sources in Science]]'', by [[w:WPMED|WikiProject Science]]
|WikiJournal of Medicine=*''[[w:WP:MEDRS|Guidelines for Reliable Sources in Medicine]]'', by [[w:WPMED|WikiProject Medicine]]
}}
{{anchor|Wiki preprint definition}}
===Preprints and postprints===
''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' permits and encourages ''authors'' to share their works via any preprint servers (including the [[WikiJournal Preprints|WikiJournal Preprint]] server) before, during and after submission to the journal. Similarly material previously published under a compatible license is admissible (see the [[#Copyright_and_licensing|Copyright and licensing section]]). For these purposes, Wikipedia is considered a preprint server, and content first posted in Wikipedia can be used in submissions.

''Authors'' may also share postprints of their works on any service (in any manner compatible with the license).

''Authors'' are recommended to ensure that preprints and postprints clearly link back to the version as published in ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}''. WikiJournal works can likewise link to preprints hosted elsewhere.

====WikiJournal preprints server====
Preprints (works in preparation and those not yet accepted for ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'') must be clearly marked as such. Peer review is required before a work is considered for accepted into the journal by the ''editorial board''. Peer review is defined as obtaining advice on individual works from reviewers expert in the field who are not part of the journal’s editorial staff. This process is described at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers]].

===Human research and cases===
When a study involves the use human subjects (e.g. patients, research subjects, questionnaire participants), the 'Methods/Experimental' section of the submitted work must state whether experiments were performed in compliance with the relevant laws and institutional guidelines, and which institutional ethics committee(s) approved the experiments.

====Informed consent====
Journal participants must ensure that proper consent for publication has been obtained from individuals who are reported on in a submitted work, or from a proxy thereof. This includes case details{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| or patient images}}. The individual(s) being reported on should be aware of the possible consequences of that reporting. For case studies, and in any work where a study subject may be identified, ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' requires ''authors'' to assert that a written informed consent was received. The ''author'' must specify whether or not the subject or proxy has seen the final version the details to be published (including pictures). If a final version has not been shown, the ''author'' should specify what the study subject or proxy has seen and that he or she has agreed to include in the publication. This requirement also applies when a report involves deceased persons. Journal participants do not themselves collect the signed consent forms routinely, but it should be kept by the ''author'', and may need to be shown at a later time in case of suspected scientific misconduct. The consent form must include:
*Specifics about what material will be published.
*An agreement to the online publication of the material.
*Place for the name as well as for the signature of the subject.
*Revocation rights: Information to the subject that she/he may revoke the consent at any time. The signer should receive contact information to the person who has explained and administered the form. Before a work is published, a revoked consent must result in the removal of subject details from the submitted work. After work publication, removal of subject details may not be possible, but consideration should be made to minimize the amount of subject details.

The wording of the form should make it clear that, even with the best efforts at keeping confidentiality, anonymity cannot be guaranteed. There is a risk that the patient may be identified by someone, somewhere, once the work is published.

Additional information should be included in certain cases:
*For patients, the form should indicate that signing it does not remove their rights to privacy.
*Hazards: A statement of [[Wikipedia:Regulatory compliance|regulatory compliance]] is required if the work involves chemicals, procedures or equipment that have any unusual hazards inherent in their use.
*If the study subject is not the signer, the relationship of the signer (i.e., the proxy) to the subject must be included. The form should include a statement to indicate that the individual or group does not have legal, mental, or physical capacity to consent, and the reason why. Examples include underage children, persons with cognitive or intellectual disabilities, or deceased persons. 
*If one person is signing for a family or other group, that person should attest that all relevant members of the family or group have been informed.
*If there is a compensation or any form of financial benefit to the subject, the nature thereof should be clearly stated on the form. Preferably, study subjects should not expect to derive any financial benefit from publication of the case.

;Example
* [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Ethics statement/Example consent form|Example of a consent form for a medical case]]

;Further reading
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/Best_Practices_for_Ensuring_Consent_for_Publishing_Medical_Case_Reports_guidance_from_COPE.pdf Journals’ Best Practices for Ensuring Consent for Publishing Medical Case Reports]'', by COPE

===Animal research===
When a study involves the use of live animals, the 'Methods/Experimental' section of the submitted work must state whether experiments were performed in compliance with the relevant laws and institutional guidelines, and which institutional ethics committee(s) approved the experiments. Furthermore, no papers will be accepted where animal experimentation has been used when alternative methods were available, and the aim of the research must be directly related to some potential benefit to humans or animals. The ''editorial board'' may ask ''peer reviewers'' to specifically comment on cases of concern.

;Further reading
*''[http://www.nc3rs.org.uk/arrive-guidelines Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) guidelines]'', by NC3Rs

===Errors in published works===
Trivial errors in published works, such as spelling or formatting errors, may be corrected by anyone even after publication. It is preferable that the ''authors'' are informed about changes to their articles, but it is ultimately the responsibility of the ''authors'' to keep track of such changes, such as by adding their articles to their [[Help:Watchlist|watchlists]].

Significant errors that affect the meaning of the work may require the paper to be corrected and re-checked by peer review, or retracted. If an ''author'' discovers an error or inaccuracy in their published work, they are obliged to inform the ''editors''. Similarly, when an ''editor'' is informed of a significant error in a published paper from the ''author'' or a third party, they must inform the ''author'' that the error must be corrected, explained, or the paper retracted.

===Other unacceptable submitted content===
In addition to plagiarised material, ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' cannot accept submission of material that contains:
*Breaches of copyright
*Data or images that have been forged, manipulated, adjusted or misrepresented in any way that may mislead a reader
*Knowingly falsified information
*Libellous content

==Duties of the peer reviewers==
Potential ''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers|peer reviewers]]'' should provide the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]] or corresponding ''editorial board member'' with personal and professional information that is accurate and a true representation of their expertise. ''Peer reviewers'' should only agree to review submissions for which they have the subject expertise required to make a proper assessment, and for which they can review in a timely manner. ''Peer reviewers'' should not use information obtained during the peer review process for their own or any other person's or organization’s advantage, nor should they use it to disadvantage or discredit others. ''Peer reviewers'' should declare all potential conflicting interests, and should seek advice from the peer ''review coordinator'' or the ''editorial board'' if they are unsure whether something constitutes a relevant conflict of interest. ''Peer reviewers'' should not allow their reviews to be influenced by the origins of a submission, by the nationality, religious or political beliefs, gender or other characteristics of the ''authors'', or by commercial considerations.

===Assessment aspects===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|WikiJournal of Science = When processing submissions to the journal, the guidelines for ''peer reviewers'' for research works includes the following ethical aspects:
*Is consent from study participants commented?
*Have risks of harm for participants been minimized?
*Is there appropriate protection of research subjects, including animals?
*Was there approval by an ethics committee or [[w:Institutional review board|institutional review board]]? 
:*If not, is there an adequate explanation whether this was done or not?}}

The reviews should be objective and constructive, with avoidance of hostile, libellous or derogatory personal comments.

A ''peer reviewer'' who suspects research misconduct should notify the ''peer review coordinator'' or the ''editorial board'' about this issue, and present all given evidence. Subsequently, the ''peer reviewer'' should not personally perform an investigation unless the journal asks for additional information or advice.

===Confidentiality===
''Peer reviewers'' must keep the confidentiality of works and ''author'' identities unless permission has been granted to disclose such material or information. ''Peer reviewers'' must not retain confidential works for their personal use.

''Peer reviewers'' have the option to keep their names confidential to the public and authors by requesting such processing in the peer review submission form.

=== Public peer review ===
''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' uses a public peer review process. ''Peer reviewers' ''comments and ''author'' responses are published alongside the work under an open access license. The version of the work at the time of review is also indicated. Optionally, if the reviewer explicitly chooses to waive their confidentiality, their name is included on the peer review reports (open peer review).

;Further reading
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/Ethical_Guidelines_For_Peer_Reviewers_2.pdf Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/Guidance_for_Editors_Research_Audit_and_Service_Evaluations_v2_0.pdf Guidance for Editors: Research, Audit and Service Evaluations]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/white-paper-on-publication-ethics/2-3-reviewer-roles-and-responsibilities/ ''Reviewer Roles and Responsibilities''], by [[w:Council_of_Science_Editors|CSE]]

==Duties of the editorial board==
''Editorial board members'' should have a set of talents, experience, and competencies that will best fulfill the needs of the ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}''. The full names and affiliations of the ''editorial board members'' should be displayed online.

===Confidentiality===
''Editorial board members'' must keep the confidentiality of works, ''author'' or ''peer reviewer'' identities, or other privileged information unless permission has been granted to disclose such material or information. ''Editorial board members'' must not retain confidential works or information for their personal use. 

===Scientific misconduct===
Scientific misconduct is defined as intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist. The ''editorial board members'' should inform institutions if they suspect misconduct by their researchers, and provide evidence to support these concerns, such as analysis of text similarity in cases of suspected plagiarism, or evidence of inappropriate image manipulation. They should cooperate with investigations and respond to institutions’ questions about misconduct allegations. They should be prepared to issue retractions or corrections when provided with findings of misconduct arising from investigations. They should correct or retract findings that are invalid or unreliable, both when caused by misconduct and by honest errors. Publications should be retracted if they are evidenced to be generally unreliable, while on the other hand a correction should be made in cases where only a small part of the publication is affected while the majority of findings and conclusions are valid.

''Editorial board members'' should investigate allegations of misconduct targeted at ''peer reviewers'' of the journal. However, ''editorial board members'' may be obliged to protect the identity of whistleblowers.

In cases of scientific misconduct involving several journals, these journals should cooperate and share information as required to resolve the issues.

''Editorial board members'' should keep communications relating to ongoing misconduct investigations confidential between parties. 

====Expression of concern====
An ''Expression of Concern'' may be used to inform readers about serious allegations likely to affect the reliability or integrity of a work. ''Expressions of Concern'' should not be viewed as ‘milder’ versions of retractions. The ''editorial board'' should consider issuing an ''Expression of Concern'' if:
* There is inconclusive evidence scientific misconduct by the ''authors''
* There is evidence that the findings are unreliable, but there is no institution or entity available to properly investigate the case
* There is reason to believe that an investigation into alleged misconduct either has not been, or would not be, fair and impartial or conclusive
* An investigation is underway but a decision thereof will not be available for a considerable time

====Correction====
The ''editorial board'' should consider issuing a correction if:
* A small portion of an otherwise reliable publication is evidenced to be misleading, particularly if it appears to be an honest error such as a methodological error or a miscalculation
* The author list is incorrect. For example, a deserving ''author'' may have been omitted or somebody who does not meet authorship criteria may have been included

====Retraction====
The ''editorial board'' should consider retracting a publication if:
* There is clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of honest error or scientific misconduct such as data fabrication
* The findings have previously been published elsewhere without proper permission or justification for publication in ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' as well
* It contains plagiarism
* It reports unethical research

Retractions are not usually appropriate in cases where the authorship needs to be changed but there is no reason to doubt the validity of the findings.

A retraction statement must be added in each retraced work. A retraction statements should:
*Be clearly identifiable as a retraction statement, including having a title starting &quot;Retraction statement&quot;
*Include the reasons for the retraction 
*Distinguish between cases of misconduct and honest error to encourage researchers to report errors when they occur and ensure no stigma is attached to this.
*Be linked to the retracted work and be open access
*Clearly identify which work it refers to, by at least title and authors
*Be published promptly after the retraction decision
*State that the ''editorial board'' has made the retraction decision
If a retraction is due to the actions of only some of the ''authors'', the statement should mention this. However, authorship entails some degree of joint responsibility for the entire work, so the author list of a work should not change after retraction.

A retraction statement may undergo amendments by consensus of the ''editorial board''.

;Further reading
*''[https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2019.1.4 Retraction guidelines]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*''[https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2018.1.3 Cooperation between research institutions and journals on research integrity cases]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]

==Duties of the associate editors==
The full names and affiliations of the ''associate editors'' should be displayed online.

In case of transfer of the ''peer review coordinator'' task to another person for a particular submission, there should be a handover period with the new and old coordinator working together. The duration of this period should be established in agreement with the ''editorial board''. Acceptance decisions of the previous ''editor'' should not be overturned unless there are substantial issues such as plagiarism or data fabrication.

===Confidentiality===
''Associate editors'' must keep the confidentiality of works, ''author'' or ''peer reviewer'' identities, or other privileged information unless permission has been granted to disclose such material or information. ''Associate editors'' must not retain such works for their personal use.

===Scientific misconduct===
In case of suspected scientific misconduct, ''associate editors'' should inform the ''editor-in-chief'' or an ''editorial board member''. Unless advised otherwise by the ''editorial board'', the next step for the editor is to seek a response from those suspected of misconduct. If they are not satisfied with the response, they should ask the relevant employers or institution to investigate. When available, it is generally the responsibility of the relevant employers or institution to investigate those suspected of misconduct, and to potentially discipline them and take measures to prevent further misconduct.

;Further reading:
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/A_Short_Guide_to_Ethical_Editing.pdf A Short Guide to Ethical Editing for New Editors]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/white-paper-on-publication-ethics/2-1-editor-roles-and-responsibilities/ ''Editor Roles and Responsibilities''], by [[w:Council_of_Science_Editors|CSE]]

==Duties of the editor-in-chief==
The ''editor-in-chief'' has final responsibilities for the operations and policies of the journal. Contact details of the ''editor-in-chief'' should be stated online. The ''editor-in-chief'' should act as the point of contact for
questions relating to research and publication ethics. The ''editor-in-chief'' should acknowledge receipt of communications from institutions and should promptly bring the matter to the ''editorial board'' for action. The ''editor-in-chief'' should keep the public informed about any changes in the aims and scope of the journal.

The ''editor-in-chief'' should not disclose confidential details about work submissions with ''editor-in-chiefs'' of other journals, unless the following requirements are fulfilled:
*Such sharing is a necessary part of fulfilling the obligation to prevent and respond to suspected research misconduct
*The ''authors'' of the work have been informed about the issue at hand, and have not given a response, or the response was not satisfactory
*The disclosure is limited to journals which are suspected of having been targeted by the research misconduct at hand, or are believed to have pertinent information of the case at hand.
*The recipient ''editor-in-chief'' is notified about the sensitive nature of the information.

The amount of disclosed information should be limited to the minimum required. The shared information should be factual, while avoiding conjecture and speculation.

;Further reading
*''[https://publicationethics.org/files/Sharing%20_of_Information_Among_EiCs_guidelines_web_version_0.pdf Sharing of Information Among Editors-in-Chief Regarding Possible Misconduct]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]

== Duties of the publisher ==
The ''publisher'' of ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' is [[Meta:WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal User Group]]. Both the ''editorial board'' and the ''associate editors'' are part of the publisher.

===Publication decisions===
The ''publisher'' is responsible for identifying and preventing the publication of works involving scientific misconduct such as plagiarism, citation manipulation, and data falsification/fabrication

===Handling of unethical publishing behavior===

===Data retention policy===
All previous versions are stored and are readily available through the ''View history'' tabs of each work. Additionally, the version of the work as initially submitted for peer review is specifically highlighted. The journal is also archived on several external sites&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://dumps.wikimedia.org/mirrors.html|title=Mirrors|last=|first=|date=|website=dumps.wikimedia.org|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=}}&lt;/ref&gt; [https://dumps.wikimedia.org/mirrors.html].

===Marketing===
Any direct marketing activities, including solicitation of works that are conducted on behalf of the publisher or journal, shall be appropriate, well targeted, and unobtrusive.

===Copyright and licensing===
All ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' publications are open access. They are by default published under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution License]] (CC BY), however other compatible OA licences can be requested by ''authors''. ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' works meet or exceed all funder and institutional requirements for being considered Open Access. The licensing of a work must be displayed among the details on the same online page and PDF document.

====Copyright for authors====
For all publications, ''authors'' retain copyright (but allow sharing and reuse as per the license).

====Sharing====
In accordance with the specific license used, the work's content can be shared, copied, distributed, transmitted, adapted and used without needing to provide additional permission, provided appropriate attribution is made to the original author or source.

====Permissions====
For any material within a work that is not available under a compatible license, ''authors'' must gain written consent from the copyright holder(s).

;Further reading
* [[:w:Wikipedia:Compatible license|''Compatible licenses'']] at Wikipedia

====Research data====
Data and factual information are ''not'' protected by copyright, and considered to be public domain once published. Additionally, simple representations and visualisations of data (e.g. tables and barcharts) are typically not creative enough to be eligible for copyright protection. As such, these types of material may be freely reused, adapted and mined without permission.

{{anchor|Wiki ownership}}
=== Ownership of Wikipedia-integrated content ===
For published works that are integrated into Wikipedia under a creative commons license, the ''publisher'', ''authors'', and ''editors'' retain no special rights above the rest of the Wikimedia community. The ''authors'' of works may update the relevant Wikipedia pages (and are encouraged to do so) in the same manner as anyone else, within Wikipedia's [[foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]].

;Further reading
* [[w:Wikipedia:Ownership of content|''Ownership of content'']], by Wikipedia

===Fees===
''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' has no publication fees of any kind for ''authors'', and no fees for accessing published works. The revenue source for the journal is by donations to the [[foundation:Home|Wikimedia Foundation]]. The journal does not display paid advertisements.

== Code of conduct ==

=== Disclosure and Conflict of Interest ===

All parties involved in a publication (including ''authors'', ''reviewers'' and ''editors'') are required to declare any potential or perceived Conflicts of Interest (COI). Such a disclosure is vital for maintaining transparency, but does not preclude the party from performing their role. Rather, the aim is to ensure that all parties and future readers are informed of relevant information. For example:
*Material or financial gain relating to the work's content
*Material or financial gain relating to the work's publication
*Patent activity related to, or potentially related to, the work's content
*Prior relationships (professional or personal) between people of different roles (''authors'', ''reviewers'' and ''editors'') for a submission
*Personal convictions which may influence the work's contents

Authors should declare any conflicts of interest in the 'Additional Information' section at the end of their work. COI declarations should be made by ''authors'' at the point of submission for peer review, by reviewers when they agreeing to perform the peer review, and by ''editors'' if handling the submission. An ''editor'' with a significant COI for a particular work should recuse themselves from publication decisions on that work.

Direct funding sources that supported the work should be listed in the work's 'Acknowledgements' section (e.g. grants, fellowships, corporate, institutional or private funding).

=== Professionalism ===
''Editors'', ''reviewers'', ''readers'' and ''publishers'' have the right to assume that submitted (and published) works do not contain scientific dishonesty and/or fraud comprising among others fictitious or manipulated data, plagiarised material (either from the previous work of the ''authors'' or that of other persons), reference omissions, false priority statements, 'hidden' multiple publication of the same data and incorrect authorship. ''Authors'' must not breach any copyright.

When reproducing figures and/or schemes from previous publications, it is the ''author's ''responsibility to seek appropriate permission from the relevant publishers.

===Harassment and discrimination===
All participants are expected to be able to contribute to ''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'' activities and processes free from harassment or discrimination. Harassment of any kind undermines the ability of members to freely express and exchange ideas and is considered a form of misconduct. All participants are expected to act in a manner that does not discriminate against or disenfranchise any member on the basis of their personal characteristics (e.g. race, nationality, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, religion, age, appearance, or disability). 

Editors should treat their colleagues with respect and avoid harassment of any kind (sexual or otherwise), victimisation, or bullying. Differences of opinion should be handled in a polite, professional, and constructive manner. Conflicts should be resolved by avoiding aggression or escalation.

;Further reading
*''[[w:wp:Civility|Guidelines for Civility]]'', by Wikipedia
*''[[mw:Code_of_Conduct|Code of Conduct in technical spaces]]'', by Wikimedia

== Contact and dispute resolution ==
Breaches of policy should be reported to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|journal's Editor in Chief]]. Those thought to have breached policy will be given opportunity to respond, and arbitration may be recommended. Those found to have performed serious violations of the policies outlined in this ethics statement will be subject to disciplinary action including but not limited to manuscript rejection or retraction, expulsion of editorial members, blocking from further contribution to the journals, or reporting to relevant authorities. Exceptional cases may be [https://publicationethics.org/cases submitted to COPE] for further comment.

==Further information==
*[https://publicationethics.org Committee on Publication Ethics] - Detailed information on a wide range of publication ethics topics, including case studies
**''[https://doi.org/10.24318/cope.2019.1.12 Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing]'', by [[w:The Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]]
*[http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/ International Committee of Medical Journal Editors] - Recommendations for medical publications, but with relevance to academic publishing in general
*[https://www.councilscienceeditors.org/resource-library/editorial-policies/sample-correspondence-for-an-editorial-office/sample-letters-organized-subject/ Council of Science Editors] - Sample communications for editors 
*If ever in doubt on any issue of the journal's publication ethics, [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|seek clarification from the editorial board]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:WikiJournal]]
[[Category:WikiJournal User Group]]
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    <title>WikiJournal User Group/Publishing</title>
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        <username>Z. Patterson</username>
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      <text bytes="24366" sha1="ikhw9lhfd1cdmw8nto8filrx13i6kaz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}__NOTOC__
{{WikiJMedTOC|Author instructions: summary|Criteria for inclusion|Publication formats|Author guidelines|General guidelines|Licensing|Publicising and disseminating works|Duties of authors|Notes}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;{{WikiJournal backlog}}[[#Criteria for inclusion|Criteria for inclusion]] for article submissions to WikiJournals are mainly that they are scientifically sound, appropriately supported by references, fall within the scope of the Journal to which the work was submitted, not already have been submitted for publication elsewhere, be of an appropriate open license and include a declaration of any [[#COI|conflicts of interests]].
&lt;br&gt;[[#Publication formats|Publication formats]] include original research{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|, case studies}} and several forms of reviews.
&lt;br&gt;Articles are preferably submitted via [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Submission|this submission page]]. Alternatively, submissions can be sent confidentially to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group = an email address of the journal |#default = {{ {{WikiJXyz}} submissions email}} }}. 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|&lt;br&gt;A written [[#Informed consent|informed consent]] is needed for case studies, and in any work where a patient may be identified.}}
{{wjm_h2|Criteria for inclusion}}
The criteria for inclusion in the {{ROOTPAGENAME}} are as follows:
*The article is {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Humanities|academically|scientifically}} sound and appropriately supported by references.
*The article is relevant to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group = the corresponding field of study of the journal |WikiJournal of Medicine = the field of medicine&lt;ref name=&quot;WJM Scope&quot; group=&quot;note&quot;&gt;The scope of this journal includes biomedicine and medical humanities. For veterinary articles, please submit to [[WikiJournal of Science]].&lt;/ref&gt; |WikiJournal of Science = any [[w:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics|STEM]] field, excluding medical and biomedicine&lt;ref name=&quot;WJS Scope&quot; group=&quot;note&quot;&gt;For medical, biomedicine and medical humanities, please submit to [[WikiJournal of Medicine]].&lt;/ref&gt; |WikiJournal of Humanities = any [[w:humanities|humanities]], [[w:Arts|arts]], [[w:Social sciences|social sciences]], or related field}}.
*The article content is not already submitted to a publisher that prohibits further publication.
*The author(s), creator(s) and/or sole owner(s) of the exclusive copyright of the work agrees to have it published under the &quot;[https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International]&quot; license (preferably), or any [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:FAQ/Copyright#table|Wikipedia-compatible license]] or multi-licensing thereof.
*Potential [[#COI|conflicts of interests]] are declared (see [{{authorship declaration form}} the submission form for details]).

The journal is currently particularly encouraging submission of articles containing media (such as images and videos) that can be regarded to be of benefit to Wikipedia articles, or other [http://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects Wikimedia projects].

{{wjm_h2|Publication formats}}
&lt;div style=&quot;display:        flex;
            flex-direction: row;
            flex-wrap:      wrap;&quot;&gt;
{{WikiJournal format section
 | Research articles
 | color = #E99898
 |
{{WikiJournal format box
 | Original research
 | Original research on any {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = journal-related
|WikiJournal of Medicine = medical or biomedical
|WikiJournal of Science = scientific
|WikiJournal of Humanities = humanities, arts or social sciences
|WikiJournal of PPB = psychology, psychiatry, or behavioural sciences
}} topic can be submitted. Such papers follow the standard ''Introduction, Results, Discussion, Methods'' format, with any relevant [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Ethics_statement#Human_research_and_cases|ethics approval]]. Publication of supplementary data sets is encouraged.
 | {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Vitamin_D_as_an_adjunct_for_acute_community-acquired_pneumonia_among_infants_and_children:_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis|Example]] (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJSci'')
|WikiJournal of Medicine = [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Vitamin_D_as_an_adjunct_for_acute_community-acquired_pneumonia_among_infants_and_children:_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Science = [[WikiJournal of Science/A card game for Bell's theorem and its loopholes|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Humanities = [[WikiJournal_of_Science/A_card_game_for_Bell%27s_theorem_and_its_loopholes|Example]] (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJSci'')
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}
}}
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = 
|WikiJournal of Medicine = 
{{WikiJournal format box
 | Case study
 | The journal publishes medical case studies, typically of a patient, but also of significant events, decisions, projects, or policies. Written [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Publishing#Informed consent|Informed consent]] is required from all subjects of case studies.
 | [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Acute_gastrointestinal_bleeding_from_a_chronic_cause:_a_teaching_case_report|Example]]
}}
|WikiJournal of Science = 
|WikiJournal of Humanities = 
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}
}}

{{WikiJournal format section
 | Review articles
 | color = #9AB3DD
 | flex-width = 2
 |
{{WikiJournal format box
 | Focused
 | Focus reviews describe a narrow topic in detail, drawing together and summarising published information. Sections of these may be integrated into relevant sections of Wikipedia articles.
 | {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Insights into abdominal pregnancy|Example]] (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of Medicine = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Insights into abdominal pregnancy|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Science = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Insights into abdominal pregnancy|Example]] (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of Humanities = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Insights into abdominal pregnancy|Example]] (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}
}}

{{WikiJournal format box
 | Encyclopedic
 | Encyclopedia reviews are broad summaries that cover an entire topic, are written in an encyclopaedic tone, and follow Wikipedia's {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = [[w:WP:RS|appropriate sources]]
|WikiJournal of Medicine = [[w:WP:MEDRS|guidelines for appropriate sources in medical articles]]
|WikiJournal of Science = [[w:WP:RS|appropriate sources]]
|WikiJournal of Humanities = [[w:WP:RS|appropriate sources]]
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}. Articles can also be expansions, improvements or re-writes of existing Wikipedia articles.&lt;ref name=&quot;WP&quot; group=&quot;note&quot;&gt;For articles intended for integration into Wikipedia, {{ROOTPAGENAME}} editors are able to advise on best practices for [[w:WP:NPOV|content]], [[w:WP:MOS|formatting]] and [[w:WP:RS|referencing]]. We can also assist in integrating suitable material into Wikipedia after the article is published. Please note that it is up to the [[w:WP:CON|consensus]] of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|For medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia, it is strongly recommended to follow the [[w:WP:MEDMOS|Medical style guide]].}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Medicine = [[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Science = [[WikiJournal_of_Science/Radiocarbon_dating|Example]]
|WikiJournal of Humanities = [[WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Æthelflæd,_Lady_of_the_Mercians|Example]]
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}
}}

{{WikiJournal format box
 | Multimedia
 | Multimedia reviews are short articles centred around one or more key figures. This can be medical photography, imaging, a diagram, schematic, video, or animation. The article gives relevant background, explains the image, and acts as an extended figure legend. Media files may require further editing after peer review. For videos it is recommended you attach an exact transcript of the dialogue, such as by [[Commons:Commons:Timed_Text|timed text]].
 | [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Cell_disassembly_during_apoptosis|Example&amp;nbsp;1]] • [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Medical_gallery_of_Blausen_Medical_2014|Example&amp;nbsp;2]] {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of Medicine = 
|WikiJournal of Science = (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of Humanities = (from&amp;nbsp;''WikiJMed'')
|WikiJournal of PPB = 
}}
}}
}}
&lt;/div&gt;

{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
|WikiJournal User Group = Wiki.J.Med. has an additional ''[[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Publishing#Publication_formats|medical case studies]]'' format.
|WikiJournal of Medicine = 
|WikiJournal of Science = 
|WikiJournal of Humanities = 
|WikiJournal of PPB = WikiJPPB has an additional ''[[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Publishing#Publication_formats|medical case studies]]'' format.
}}

Review articles can be written and processed in two ways:
*Existing Wikipedia articles can be submitted via [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]], with subsequent peer review amendments then integrated back into Wikipedia.
*New content can be written on the [[WikiJournal Preprints|WikiJournal preprint server]], and can be used to expand and revise Wikipedia pages after acceptance.

{{wikiJournal h2|Author guidelines}}
{{#section-h:WikiJournal_User_Group/Guidelines|Author guidelines}}

{{wjm_h2|General guidelines}}

=== Main text ===

==== Clarity ====

* Manuscripts submitted to the {{ROOTPAGENAME}} should exhibit clear, correct, concise, comprehensible, and consistent writing.
* We recommend asking one or two colleagues known for writing well to review your manuscript before submission. {{ROOTPAGENAME}} editors will carefully review manuscripts for quality prose, we cannot provide a full, in-depth copy editing service. Therefore please submit a manuscript only after you ''know'' that your article exhibits pithy prose.
* [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing/Writing resources|Writing resources]]
** &quot;''The main objective of scholarly writing is clear communication, which can be achieved by presenting ideas in an orderly and concise manner. ... Precise, clear word choice and sentence structure also contribute to the creation of a substantive, impactful work''&quot; - APA Publication Manual&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vizcaino|first=Arantxa|date=2020|title=Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association|url=https://www.revistacomunicar.com/wp/school-of-authors/publication-manual-of-the-american-psychological-association-apa-seventh-edition-2020|language=en|edition=Seventh Edition|doi=10.3916/school-of-authors-100}}&lt;/ref&gt;
** &quot;''We cannot succeed in making even a single sentence mean one and only one thing; we can only increase the odds that a large majority of readers will tend to interpret our discourse according to our intentions''&quot; - The Science of Scientific Writing&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/blog/the-long-view/the-science-of-scientific-writing|title=The Science of Scientific Writing|date=2018-01-03|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2021-03-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Content ====
*Submissions are preferably created at the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Submission|Submission]] page (alternatively, submissions can be sent confidentially to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group = an email address of the journal |WikiJournal of Medicine = {{Wikijmed submissions email}} |WikiJournal of Science = {{WikiJSci general contact email}} |WikiJournal of Humanities = {{WikiJHum general contact email}} }})
*For the article title, use ''sentence case capitalization'' (capitalized first letter of the first word and proper nouns, otherwise generally lower-case letters ([https://www.k-state.edu/grad/academics/etdr/write/sentence-case.html more information]).
*Author(s) should be given by real name(s), with a method of contact (email address or [[Special:EmailUser]] link) for at least one corresponding author. It is recommended to have author names displayed online already during the peer review, yet authors may opt to be anonymous until article acceptance.
*[[Wikipedia:ORCID|ORCID]] IDs should be included when possible to disambiguate author identity ([https://orcid.org/register registration])
*Submitted works may include up to 6 [[Wikipedia:Index term|keywords]] 
*For original research, an abstract should ideally be structured into Method/Background, Results and Conclusion parts, while for reviews they can be more freely composed summaries (200-500 words)
*It is recommended to also include a short (50-100 word) plain language summary for a reader with no specialised knowledge in the article's topic, omitting technical detail and jargon (writing advice: &quot;[https://yoursay.plos.org/2021/03/plain-language-summaries-an-essential-component-to-promote-knowledge-translation/ Plain-Language Summaries]&quot; and &quot;[https://journal.emwa.org/media/2188/2047480615z2e000000000320.pdf Writing for lay audiences]&quot;)
*Usage of [[Help:Contents/Links|hyperlinks]] are encouraged, especially links to Wikipedia articles, by clicking the [[File:VisualEditor_-_Toolbar_-_Linking_%28small%29.png|25px]] button and pasting a Wikipedia URL
*3-6 peer reviewers with appropriate expertise to assess the work ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Criteria|see criteria]]) should be recommended
*Avoid breaching copyright (including text/images from articles that you previously wrote, but where copyright is owned by the journal)

==== Figures ====
* Vector graphics should be in [[Wikipedia:.svg|svg]] format. Other images should be in high resolution, [[Wikipedia:.png|png]], [[Wikipedia:.tif|tif]] or [[Wikipedia:.jpg|jpg]]
* If possible, figures should be understandable even after printing the article in black-and-white
* Each image will be automatically numbered and it is often useful to refer to each in the text
* Figures adapted from creative commons sources should have their attribution included in the caption

==== References ====
* References should be inserted using the {{menu icon|[[File:VisualEditor - Toolbar - citoid citepong.png|55px|link=]]|non}} button (which formats the reference when given a DOI, URL or plaintext citation).

=== Additional information section ===
* Roles of contributors may be described, such as by using [http://www.cell.com/pb/assets/raw/shared/guidelines/CRediT-taxonomy.pdf “CRediT” author taxonomy] or [https://scienceforall.world/stardit STARDIT contributor taxonomy]
* Acknowledgement sections should include (and be limited to) funding bodies, departments, groups and individuals that assisted, and are willing to be publicly mentioned.

==== Data and supplementary information ====
We encourage the publication of full datasets.
* Small datasets can be included as a collapsible, made sortable is appropriate ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/Vitamin D as an adjunct for acute community-acquired pneumonia among infants and children: systematic review and meta-analysis|example]])
* Medium datasets or additional information can be included as supplementary data pages ([[WikiJournal of Science/A card game for Bell's theorem and its loopholes#Additional information|example]])
* Large datasets can be hosted on open data repositories such as the [https://osf.io/ Open Science Framework], and a link included in the article

==== Competing interests ====
{{anchor|COI}}
[[Wikipedia:Conflict of interest|Conflicts of interest]] includes any payment or services from a commercial, private or governmental third party (e.g. grants, data monitoring boards, study design, manuscript preparation, or statistical analysis). For grants received for work ''outside'' the submitted work, disclosure is only required for entities that could be perceived to be affected financially by the published work, such as drug companies, or foundations supported by entities that with possible financial stake in the outcome. Any involvement in WikiJournal should also be disclosed. Disclosure is not required for public funding sources, such as government agencies, charitable foundations or academic institutions.

=== Attribution of material ===
Articles adapted from Wikipedia should include an [https://tools.wmflabs.org/xtools-articleinfo/?article=cerebellum&amp;project=en.wikipedia.org &quot;''et. al.''&quot;] link in the author list which lists all contributors to the Wikipedia article (using the &quot;et_al&quot; option in the article header). Text drawn from Creative Commons or other openly licensed sources must either be clearly [[Template:CC-notice|attributed]] to be compliant with [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|that license]], or be [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Plagiarism#Avoiding_plagiarism|paraphrased]]. Images not created by the authors should be attributed with name and license in the legend, such as: ''{{font|size=small|Jane Smith, [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en CC-BY-SA 3.0]}}''. Always double check the original source's license.

=== Publication ===
Based on the recommendations of the peer reviewers, the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors|editorial board]] will make the decision whether to publish the article. Published articles will be added to an issue of the journal, assigned a DOI, have a PDF generated, be promoted on social media, and suitable content integrated into Wikipedia.

=== Post-publication revision ===
*Minor edits, such as spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting, can be corrected after publication by the authors or editors.
*Major changes or additions to content after publication are acceptable, but require a new round of peer review before acceptance.
*All articles are open to post-publication peer review, and edit suggestions can be added at the &quot;Discuss&quot; tab at the top of each page.

===Further reading===
The {{ROOTPAGENAME}} follows the [[Wikipedia:ICMJE Recommendations (Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts)|ICMJE Recommendations]] on Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication ([http://www.icmje.org/icmje-recommendations.pdf Guidelines]), and its guidelines are recommended for manuscript layout. General reporting guidelines for various types of scientific works are also provided by [[Wikipedia:EQUATOR Network|the EQUATOR Network]] ([http://www.equator-network.org/ Guidelines]).

The journal also welcomes translations of submitted works.

Full publication process documented at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial guidelines|this link]].

{{wjm_h2|Licensing}}
Articles are published by default as [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|CC BY 4.0]]. Articles that incorporate significant content from Wikipedia are published [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/|CC BY-SA 4.0]]. Authors may request compatible open access licenses (e.g. [https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ CC0] or [[c:Commons:GNU_Free_Documentation_License,_version_1.2|GNU 1.2]]). Images and other media are under the same license as the article by default unless otherwise stated in the in the figure legend. Article-level licensing information is embedded in the XML metadata. Author(s) therefore hold article copyright and publishing rights without restrictions.

Per the [http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/bethesda.htm#definition Bethesda Statement] on Open Access:
*The author(s) and copyright holder(s) grant(s) to all users a free, irrevocable, worldwide, perpetual right of access to, and a license to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship, as well as the right to make small numbers of printed copies for their personal use.
*A complete version of the work and all supplemental materials, including a copy of the permission as stated above, in a suitable standard electronic format is deposited immediately upon initial publication in at least one online repository that is supported by an academic institution, scholarly society, government agency, or other well-established organization that seeks to enable open access, unrestricted distribution, interoperability, and long-term archiving (for the biomedical sciences, PubMed Central is such a repository).

{{wjm_h2|Publicising and disseminating works}}
Since all articles are open access, authors are free to share, disseminate and copy their work as they like. After publication, authors are encouraged to [[Wikipedia:Self-archiving|self-archive]] their works at in institutional repository or independent repositories (e.g. [https://www.ssrn.com/index.cfm/en/ SSRN], [https://osf.io/ OSF], [https://zenodo.org/ Zenodo]). They are additionally welcome to deposit copies onto academic social networking sites (e.g. [http://www.researchgate.net researchgate], [https://www.academia.edu academia.edu]). Articles will be publicised through the journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal of Medicine = WikiJMed |WikiJournal of Science = WikiJSci |WikiJournal of Humanities = WikiJHum}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal of Medicine = WikiJMed |WikiJournal of Science = WikiJSci |WikiJournal of Humanities = WikiJHum}} Twitter] pages.

{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group = |WikiJournal of Medicine = The following content from WikiJournal of Medicine publications can be integrated into Wikipedia:
*Content that is referenced by reliable sources according to &quot;[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)|Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)]]&quot;, and should use those references in Wikipedia.
*Images, [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No_original_research#Original_images|as long as they do not illustrate or introduce unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The article in WikiJournal can then be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|used as a reference]] in the Wikipedia article.
WikiJournal of Medicine articles should currently not themselves be used as references in Wikipedia articles, but this may be permitted in a near future (pending reception of such usage from WikiJournal of Science). 

Some original research my be integrated into other Wikimedia projects (such as Wikiversity teaching courses, [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Acute gastrointestinal bleeding from a chronic cause: a teaching case report|case study example]]). Articles in the ''Focused review'' format may include 'Discussion', 'Outlooks', or similar sections with author opinions, which will appear in the journal version of the article only.
|WikiJournal of Science =  |WikiJournal of Humanities = The following content from WikiJournal of Humanities publications can be integrated into Wikipedia:
*Content that is referenced by reliable sources according to &quot;[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources|Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources]]&quot;, and should use those references in Wikipedia.
*Images, [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No_original_research#Original_images|as long as they do not illustrate or introduce unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The article in WikiJournal can then be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|used as a reference]] in the Wikipedia article.
WikiJournal of Humanities articles should currently not themselves be used as references in Wikipedia articles, but this may be permitted in a near future (pending reception of such usage from WikiJournal of Science).

Some original research my be integrated into other Wikimedia projects (such as Wikiversity teaching courses, [[WikiJournal of Medicine/Acute gastrointestinal bleeding from a chronic cause: a teaching case report|case study example]]). Articles in the ''Focused review'' format may include 'Discussion', 'Outlooks', or similar sections with author opinions, which will appear in the journal version of the article only.}}

{{wjm_h2|Duties of authors}}
{{#section-h:WikiJournal_User_Group/Ethics_statement|Duties of the authors}}
;Further reading
*''[[WikiJournal User Group/Ethics statement|Full ethics statement]]'', by the WikiJournal User Group

{{wjm_h2|Notes}}
{{reflist|group=&quot;note&quot;}}

[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]</text>
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    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Cognitive architecture for storing domain-specific knowledge in a hierarchical task network</title>
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        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-33927-78|~2026-33927-78]] ([[User_talk:~2026-33927-78|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Mickie-Mickie|Mickie-Mickie]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="59002" sha1="9e6tfoiuzskewhl650c43de9ys4vgcv" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
|journal         = 
|last1           = Schröder
|first1          = Frank
|affiliations    = Independent
|keywords        = Artificial Intelligence
|license         = {{CC BY SA work}}
|abstract        =

Abstract: For solving complex robotics problems, every planner needs a heuristic to speed up the search process in the game tree. One possibility to formalize domain knowledge is a qualitative physics engine which has different layers. A random generator produces a plan, which is tested against the naive physics engine and the resulting score is used to determine if the plan is valid or not. Such a problem solving technique is an important part of a cognitive architecture which is known as BDI-agent framework.
}}

== Introduction ==

=== Game-engine which stores Domain specific knowledge ===

One of the biggest challenges in Artificial Intelligence is to store domain specific knowledge in a machine readable form. In the literature, many concepts are discussed for example ontologies or semantic networks. Sure, they are machine-readable, in a form that the ontology is a owl-file, which can be parsed automatically, the problem is that the practical usage of hierarchical data are not very high. Because, how exactly can a mind map be used for controlling a robot-agent? Right, it is unsolved yet.

A more elaborated form of knowledge storage is to accept only a symbolic game-engine as a knowledge container. A game-engine is per definition a piece of software which can predict the future. For example, if we are sending the command “move-left” to the game-engine, the system will update the internal state of the player, e.g. with “newpos = {x-10,y}”. From a formal perspective a game-engine is programmed in computer code, for example in C. But from a usage scenario a game-engine can be utilized as a prediction machine. That means, for any game-engine the game-tree can be generated, and this is the pathway to Artificial Intelligence. If we can sample a system with a brute-force solver it is possible to solve the game, that means to generate a plan which fulfills certain conditions.

Let us investigate how modern sampling planner are working. RRT and other graph-based sampler are using an existing game-engine (called action model) for testing out random moves. They can do so, because the game-engine contains a list of allowed moves, and the game-engine calculates what the follow state will be. Or to make the point more clear. If we do not have a game-engine, we can not generate the game-tree and we can not generate the optimal path through it.

Machine readable knowledge is equal to construct a game-engine. That is the only option we have. We can discuss in detail how the game engine can be programmed for example in the Game description language &lt;ref name=&quot;bjornsson2009cadiaplayer&quot; /&gt;, in PDDL, in plain C or in object-oriented C++, but in any case we need some kind of prediction ready game-engine. Such a system stores the knowledge about the system. Knowledge in a form, that we define which motion primitives are possible and what they will change, after executing them.

==== Grounding ====

In most papers about cognitive architectures the term grounding is introduced for connecting the agent actions with the real world. The idea behind grounding is, that the agent has a synthetic memory (episodic memory) in which he is able to describe the world. This description is not totally wrong, but it ignores the engineering aspect for generating such an “episodic memory”. From the game-programming / C++ perspective there is no software module available called episodic memory or grounded perception. The only tool what software-engineers can implement is a game-engine. The engine has the same obligation, to map actions, perception and environment. But the term has nothing to do with psychology but with game-development. &lt;ref name=&quot;lugrin2007making&quot; /&gt;

Let us go back to the example with the “move-left” command. If we want to ground the action, we need a new C-function in the form “if (input==”move-left”) do something”. Do something means, to change an internal variable for example “newpos = {x-10,y}”. The action is grounded because we have connected a natural language input “move-left” with C-function in the source code. I would guess, that it is enough to program a layered game-engine; a different kind of grounding module is not needed.

The term “game engine” is a bit uncommon for classical Artificial Intelligence research, because it has nothing to do with psychology science or neural networks in real animals. Also, it is not a mathematical model, so there is the suspicion that a “Game engine” is not scientific at all. And yes, the term is used by engineers not by Academia. They want to implement executable code on real computers. They are not interested in philosophical debates about thinking machines or perception in the human brain.

==== Game Engine ====

A game engine is usually used for rendering the graphic and evaluate the user input. The same technique can be used in the context of AI. An early example is the GOAP paradigm which is grouped around a game-engine. The game-engine evaluates a plan and gives a score back. A more sophisticated example are HTN-planners which have as a core a pddl file which acts similar to a game engine. But it is even possible to model story based games with an engine. This is used by text adventures and the engine can be used similar to a HTN-planner: for figuring out what the best plan through the game is.

=== Knowledge engineering with natural language ===

About AI planning itself, there is a huge amount of literature available. From the early beginning with the STRIPS planning system in the 1970s, over later developed pddl like HTN-planners upto modern game-oriented GOAP planning goes the history. A sub problem in AI planning is until now open: how does the action model look like for a certain domain? For example, we want to play Robocup and need the domain model in a pddl description.

How the path may be look like to develop machine readable knowledge from scratch is discussed under the term GIVE challenge (“Generating Instructions in Virtual Environments”).&lt;ref name=&quot;give2012&quot; /&gt; That is not directly an algorithm, but a programming challenge which is grouped around ready-to-run domain knowledge. For all, who are not aware with the original challenge, here the idea in short. The aim is not to guide a robot through a maze but a human. The software generates the output in natural language and the human must act. From the AI history the setup is called decision support system, because the computer only give help to the human but not decides for him. The advantage from the programmer perspective is, that such a system is easier to implement then a full-blown robot control system. A second interesting part is that the output is in natural language.

How the challenge can be solved is not very complicated. At first, a pddl domain description is used, then the current situation of the game is read, and a planner is used for producing the next step for the human. The planner can be based on STRIPS, PDDL, HTN or GOAP. He generates the plan, for example “open door”, “walk left”, “push button”. How the human is executing the plan is on his side. The feedback for the AI is only the situation in the game itself. That means, the software has the tasks:

* track the actions
* plan future actions
* with the help of an internal model

The GIVE challenge doesn't only generate natural language, but it is a subgoal generator. The idea is not to control a robot with low-level commands, instead the goal is to planning part-goals, for example “open door” and similar actions. 

== Cognitive architecture ==

=== Agent oriented programming ===

Object-oriented programming is the classical paradigm: a method contains commands in a linear fashion. The actions are executed from top to bottom. If another program flow is needed, the programmer has to modify the source code. In contrast: agent-oriented programs are using a layer who is controlling the program flow. The layer is called blackboard and is some kind of note-area to rearranging commands. For example, the first draft contains the following commands:

  print, if-then, print

After a modification by an agent, the new program flow is maybe:

  if-then, print, goto

In early years this technique was called self-modifying programs, because in the software is another software which is created from scratch at run-time, called the agent-plan. Agent-oriented programming is not using a fixed program flow, created by the programmer, instead the Artificial Intelligence creates the program flow for the need of a problem. If the plan is ready, it will be executed by the interpreter. The amount of modules and subroutines to realize such behavior is called an agent-framework. It is based on object-oriented programming but has new features.

=== Understanding SOAR and ACT-R ===

It is widely known, that cognitive architectures are simulating the human process of thinking. But this is a bad introduction for explaining the principle to beginners who are not familiar with Artificial Intelligence. The better approach is to understand a cognitive architecture as a &quot;hierarchical task network&quot;. This term is used in the gaming industry in the domain of GOAP (Goal oriented action planning) and means not to create a behavior tree, but to implement a symbolic game engine. The game engine is used to testing out plans and scoring them.

SOAR is an advanced form of a HTN-network. It is basically a hierarchical planner, on the lowest level there are actions, and above the actions are tasks. They are planned hierarchical. Additionally, SOAR has some agent-like features, for example a semantic memory and a blackboard. This is used for evaluating plans.&lt;ref name=&quot;wray2005introduction&quot; /&gt;

It is true, that SOAR was programmed in LISP, but LISP is not the best programming language for implement an AI system. It makes sense to start with a mainstream language, for example C/C++. It is a mainstream language, because C/C++ can be used for any kind for software development tasks, from hardware drivers, over desktop-application up to Artificial intelligence. Instead, LISP is only used for AI problems and compiler-compiler which makes it's harder to understand. The bottom up approach for teaching cognitive architecture is first to implement a simple HTN-planner in C++, and extends this later into a cognitive architecture which has agents and deep.-learning features.

Let us explain the core idea behind HTN-planning, because this results into Artificial Intelligence. On the lowest level, an AI is a planner. An easy to understand example is a path-planner like A* and RRT. At first, random movements are created, and each of the nodes is evaluated with a score. The node with the highest score is executed by the AI. Such a core-feature can be written down in two simple lines of code:

  for trial
    calculate score for node

The algorithm runs in a for loop and on each iteration he is evaluating the score. Sure, this simple pseudo-code isn't able to control any robot, but it makes it easier to understand what AI is. SOAR, HTN-planners and agent-architecture are about the details of how to implement such a for-loop. The reason, why the term cognitive architecture is used has to do with the importance of natural language for domain modeling. Classical path-planning works not with language, but with numbers. For example, with the distance from point A to B. The problem is, that with numbers alone is not possible to implement complex domain models. And without a domain model the planner can not search for a node. 

The bottleneck in HTN-planning as well in SOAR is to create complex domain models for games. A domain model is usually a mini-game which has possible actions and an outcome after executing it. All agent architecture have such mini-games in the sleeve. In the literature there are some examples given of how to store a domain model: PDDL, Game description language or ontologies. The holy grail of AI is to generate a domain model on-the-fly. That means, the agent plays a new game, creates the domain model in GDL, and this is used by SOAR to plan the next actions.

=== AGI is a testbed for Narrow AI ===

A look backwards in the history of AI is often done with the explanation what the difference between Artificial General Intelligence and Narrow AI is. But perhaps the difference is only artificial? Perhaps both are the same? Let us investigate how the robocup robotics challenge work. It contains of two types of software. At first a testbed, which is able to evaluate which of the teams has won, and secondly the agent itself, which is able to play the game. This distinction makes also sense for other domains, for example chess playing, Micromouse and a line following robot. In any case, two types of software is used: one which has the function to act like a turing-test, and the second which is the core AI.

Without any doubt, the second part (the AI) is called in the literature a narrow AI. For example, if somebody has programmed in C++ and with ABL a robocup AI who is able to kick the ball, then this agent can be called intelligent, or at least it es equal to Narrow AI. That means, the software is able to solve a certain problem. On the other hand, the problem which is equal to play robocup has to be monitored by a different type of software. It is uncommon in the literature, to call this part of the overall setup an Artificial General Intelligence, but it would make sense.

From a programming point of view, the evaluation software is called a testbed. It is software which was programmed to run other software inside. For example, the Robocode challenge contains the robocode testbed itself (which was programmed in Java) and the agents which can be executed inside Robocode. The same is true for the famous Mario AI challenge. It contains of the Super Mario Game itself, and possible agents who can be run inside the environment.

The hypothesis is, that early so called Artificial General Intelligence projects like SOAR and the General problem solver, were never invented as a Narrow AI. That means, SOAR is not able to control a robot or play a game. Instead, SOAR is a testbed and can be used in a robotics challenge in which the teams have the task to program the narrow AI.&lt;ref name=&quot;arrabales2009cera&quot; /&gt;

==== Robo-soar ====

For the software “robo-soar” in a paper was described, that this tool acts mainly as a testbed.&lt;ref name=&quot;laird1991robo&quot; /&gt; Soar is explained as a integrated AI framework, and on page 5 the general setup is shown. It is mainly a robotarm, which can pick&amp;place objects and also a human-operator is in the loop. The interesting information is, that SOAR is not the agent for controlling the robotarm (a so called weak artificial intelligence), but SOAR is the overall framework. The modern description would be, that it is the software to monitor a robotics challenge. A program which can say, which participant in the competition has written the best agent-software.

But there is in the above cited paper something else which is interesting, in the 17 pages long paper there is no heuristics or sourcecode given how to solve the problem. The problem was to pick&amp;place objects with the robotarm. A possible solution would be to program an agent in C or LISP which is planning some actions. But, this strategy is not part of the paper. The paper is only about the competition itself, that means it describes in detail what the task is, not how to program the ai-agent.

The same approach is visible in a more recent paper, which was published by the same author in year 2000. The first sentence in the abstract explains very well what the aim is:

“We are creating an environment in which to investigate the role of advanced AI in computer games. [...] In this paper we describe our test bed for pursuing research in developing human-level AI characters within computer games.” &lt;ref name=&quot;laird2000test&quot; /&gt;

The goal is not to program an AI which is able to play the game autonomously, instead the aim is to program a robocode like environment and to delegate the programming of the AI to participants of the competition.

== Implementation ==

=== GOAP Planning ===

If HTN-planning is the academic term, GOAP is the realization in a computer game. Goal and action planning means usually a hierarchical planning system for an Artificial Intelligence. But what exactly is planning? Geometric planning is the search for a path in a maze around the obstacles, while HTN-planning has to do with a trajectory in a symbolic maze.&lt;ref name=&quot;porteous2009controlling&quot; /&gt; This maze can't be visualized with x/y coordinates but can be described with tasks and subtasks. If the action gets executed the agent is doing something in a computergame, for example he walks to the door and opens it.

What a HTN-planner is doing is to describe the domain with symbolic constraints. They are similar to obstacles in a 2d space, but they are defined with abstract descriptions for example the goal “search for the key” is an obstacle. It is something which can be fulfilled or not and which is used by the planner to generate actions. Because of the abstract nature of HTN-planners i would call these system natural language evaluation systems. Because the action space is defined by English vocabulary and the plan is also a sequence of action-words.

What the programmer of a GOAP system is doing, is to formulate the domain with abstract obstacle. He is building a map in which the planner is searching for a trajectory. A trajectory means usually a plan which is a sequence of actions. A HTN-planner is able to evaluate a plan, he can score a given plan and search for a better one.

=== Inner working of a sampling based HTN-planner ===

What a HTN-planning system is doing on a theoretical level is well known. It plans something according to an domain model. But how can we implement this into software? The first step is to define a hierarchy of actions. There are some textual commands which can be send to the layered simulator:

* layer0: keyboard left, keyboard right, keyboard up, keyboard   down
* layer1: walk left, jump over box, jump against block
* layer2: walk to point a, walk to princess, get key

According to the names, this is an example of a side scrolling game in which the player has some problems to solve. On the lowest level the game can be controlled with the arrow keys only, additional there are more layers which are expressing the semantics of a move. The game can be played on all the layers. Either the player can use the arrow keys, or he can enter high-level commands which brings the game-engine directly to the goal state. For example if he enters the command “get the key”, he has without further problems simply the key in his inventory. This bypass all the details which are usually be necessary to get the key, it is some kind of trainer mode.

The planner works in a way, that random actions are send against all layers of the game-engine to see what will happen. If only the lowest layer is selected it will take a long time because the state space is high. If the planner is using all layers, the game will solved much faster. I want to a give a example. According to the random generator the following actions are selected:

  “get key”, “jump over box”, “keyboard left”, “walk left”

That means, we have run the random generator 4 times and these are the random commands. How can we execute the commands against the game engine? Execution of the lowlevel command on layer0 “keyboard left” is easy, we are sending simply the command to the game engine and see what will happen. It is a normal search in the game tree. Executing a mid-level action like “walk left” is a bit harder. According to the table, this command is from layer1, that means it can't be executed directly. The original game has no command with such a name. Instead the command is a subgoal and the planner is forced to solve on the level below. That means, he is sending keyboard commands to the engine, until the player “walks left”.

In general the inner working is equal to a HTN-planning system. We have lowlevel and high-level actions and must generate partial order plans to satisfy certain conditions. Only commands on the lowest layer can be executed directly, the other commands are only symbolic goals, which guides the search procedure.

Usually HTN-planning system are implemented in agents. The agent has an abstract plan and a blackboard &lt;ref name=&quot;rudenko2007overview&quot; /&gt; and he generates for the plan the lowlevel actions to execute them against the game engine. If some plans are failing during runtime, the agent detects the problem and replans.

==== BDI agent ====

If a HTN-planner is able to solve a game, what is the purpose of an BDI agent? The idea is to layer the overall system into submodules: the game itself, ontop a hierarchical simulator, then a HTN-planner and on top of all the BDI-agent. The BDI agent is only the upper way to communicate with the overall system. It is implemented in a C++ class, which has commands like “start-agent”, “show plan”. The class also have a solver integrated, which is based on the module defined on a lower levels. The solver for example is using a HTN-planner for generating a new plan. But additionally to planning, the BDI agent has some other features, for example to search for new goals.

{{fig|1
|align=right
|Artificial-intelligence-BDI-agent-framework.png
|Artificial intelligence, BDI agent framework}}

Sometimes a BDI-agent framework is associated with a concrete programming language for example Agentspeak. But it is not a piece of software, it is a software-engineering technique like object-oriented programming. It is a certain way to structure the sourcecode. That means, a BDI agent can be programmed in normal C++ without the need of inventing a new programming language for Artificial Intelligence. In the easiest form a BDI-agent is a class inside of a robot-control-system which has high-level-methods like “start”, “Stop”, “ask for a goal”, “plan”. Usually, it is interacting directly with the GUI. That means, the BDI agent is a high-level description of the Artificial Intelligence. The user starts the program code with “./a.out”, and then he sees a GUI, and in the gui he can enter the goals and sees the plans of the agent to reach the goals.

A BDI-agent is doing the same like a HTN-planner or a layered game-engine. The idea is to play a game autonomously. The difference is, that such a piece of software is very complex and one of the submodule is called BDI-agent.

=== Programming a HTN-planner ===

The most demanding task in HTN-planning is not the solver itself. This is in most cases a simple brute-force search algorithm which takes the hierarchical domain model and searches in the graph. No, the bottleneck is to create the hierarchical task network, which is equal to a domain model. Let us go into the details to recognize potential pitfalls. Suppose, we have a game like Mario AI. The interaction works in a way, that the user is pressing the left/right arrow and navigates Mario through the level. So every game has to do with pressing keys: left and right.

The sad news is, that this description is correct but there is missing some important detail. Mario AI is more then only pressing left and right, Mario AI has to do with jumping over a wall, finding the princess and avoid the enemies. Describing a game as a hierarchical task network has to do with finding out the inner working of the game, known as the semantic description. This inner working differs from game to game: a car racing game has a different meaning then a real time strategy game. A HTN-network is about the inner working, it divides the overall control task into modules.

The general idea is to transform a monolithic game into smaller subgames which can be solved on an abstract level. The aim is to increase the interaction level into the direction of natural language. What the user of Mario AI want's is no longer pressing left/right keys, he want's to enter “jump over wall”, “avoid enemy”, “jump with trajectory #2”. The only problem is, that these kinds of commands are not available in the original game, they have to be invented from scratch. It is like designing a new game, which wasn't there before.

So the logical question is: how does the new abstract game will look like? This depends heavily from the domain. The subgames of a racing game have to do with car physics, racing and trajectories for curve ride. The subgames in a RTS-game have to do with build order, long term strategy and position of units on the map. The more general term for describing the subgames is “Domain knowledge”. Domain knowledge is something which is important to win a game and this has to be transferred into an abstract subgame inside the original game.

There is an important reason why domain knowledge has to be formulated as a subgame. Because this is the only way to evaluate the knowledge and search for a plan. A newly invented game engine is the perfect choice for predicting future states of the game, and this is the fundamental idea behind a HTN-planner. What a htn-planner is doing, is using one of the actions from a layer and testing out a move, then he scores the result. That means, the HTN-planner is utilizing a subgame for predicting the future.

The usual idea in the literature is to find the subgames automatically by genetic programming or neural networks. This attempts fails. A game engine for real purposes has to be created by hand, that means inside a software-engineering process. Domain modeling is nothing which can be done automatically, it is mainly a task for the programmer. He has to define, how the HTN-network will look like, what possible high-level-commands are there and what the scoring value of an outcome is. The programming task is similar to programming any other game. Usually the programmer has to implement the game rules in many edit-compile-run iterations until the game works. Or to make the point clear: if manual C++ programming in an IDE together with git and some question on stackoverflow are the only option to program a Mario game from scratch, then the more demanding task of programming a subgame inside Mario AI for predicting the jumping behavior is also a manual task. The infrastructure for building a HTN-network can be described with:

* object oriented programming language like C++
* a bugtracker for note down the issues
* an online forum for asking other programmer for help
* some examples from the past written down in sourcecode and   academic papers
* a git-like version control system to modify the sourcecode

I want to elaborate the overall process for developing subgames for a HTN-planner. What the programmer usually has, is the monolithic game and a walkthrough tutorial in natural language. What he doesn't have is machine readable domain knowledge. The task is to convert the instruction manual written in English into subgames which can be run by the HTN-planner for solving the game. The result will look like a layered physics engine written from scratch. It works from the outside view like this:

  action(layer,command), e.g. action(layer2, “jump over wall”)

How this physics engine works internally is up to the programmer. The general idea behind abstract subgames is to provide subgoals and scoring rewards. These are used by the HTN-solver for figuring out the best move. Or to be more specific: the monolithic game is split into smaller, layered subgames which can each solved in a small amount of time.

==== Simulating a plan ====

Hierarchical task networks were invented in the year 1975 under the term “procedural net / NOAH”. According to the original paper &lt;ref name=&quot;sacerdoti1975nonlinear&quot; /&gt;, the general idea is to create a hierarchical plan and simulate it with a procedural net. Let us make a short example. At first we need a hierarchical plan, this plan is executed in a simulator. The simulator gives feedback for the plan. Is the plan valid? How long does it take? What is the overall score?

 go to room B
   go forward (physics engine #1)
     leg1 down
     leg2 left
     leg1 up
   take the key (physics engine #2)
   open door (physics engine #3)
   go forward (physics engine #1)
     leg1 up
     leg2 up
     leg1 down   

Running a hierarchical plan is straightforward compared to running a simple plan in a simulator. Because the procedural net is not only a single physics engine, but each node is it's own physics engine. In the figure the plan and the matching physics engine are given as an example. What the overall HTN-planner is doing is to take a subplan, recognizing which physics engine is the right one, and testing the plan against the engine. Finding the right plan is surprising simple. In the easiest implementation, random plans are generated, tested against the procedural net and the aim is to identify the plan with the highest score.

== Hierarchical task networks ==

=== Hierarchical Backtracking: a less known problem solving technique ===

With the advent of behavior trees for ingame-AI most software developers are aware of how to build an artificial agent. The idea is, that a designer specify the behavior of the bot and after the script is created it will get executed like a normal computer program. But scripting-AI is only the beginning, there are more sophisticated AI techniques available like HTN-planning and especially HTN-backtracking. The difference is, that they are not recognized broadly and most programmers doesn't know how to implement such strategies.

The basic idea behind HTN planning is, not to specify a script but program a symbolic game engine which is able to predict the future. Such a game-engine is equal to a textadventure, it is some kind of software modul which takes a command like “open door” and reacts to the command. One possible option to realize the engine is the PDDL programming language, but it is also possible to use normal C++ or Python code to program a textadventure. And now the things become complicated. A game-engine itself is not enough, what HTN-planning is about is a hierarchy of game-engines. On the lower level the agent moves around, on the second level he gets strategy commands like “move to point A” and on the high-level he gets very general commands like “search for the door”.

Suppose we have implemented a layered textadventure, then the next step is to use a technique called backtracking. Backtracking is usually known for game-tree search in computerchess. It means, to try out different paths in the tree. But, computerchess contains only of one tree, no hierarchy is used. If a multi-layer-gameengine is available it is available to backtrack over many layers, This saves lot of cpu-time. It means, that the solver is used for each game-engine separately. Let us make a simple example.

The plan which was created is:

 search for a door
   --move to point A
     --open door

It is not a flat plan, but a hierarchical one. There are three layers available, and each layer is a separate game. Suppose in one of the layer some action is blocked, because of external reasons. Then the planer can search for a bypass. He uses the game-engine to predict future states and searches for a subplan which fulfills the conditions. The most important feature is, that the solver is really fast. Hierarchical planning means to leave huge parts of the overall plan unchanged. It is possible to replan only a subpart of the plan.

In most cases, the lowest layer of the HTN-planner is connected to a physics engine. Running a physics engine is very CPU-intensive. So the goal is to reduce the number of iterations. For example, if it is known, that the command “open door” will result into a certain situation it is not necessary to start the physics engine on each planning step to check if the agent really is able to open the door. Instead the result can be assumed as successful and this situation is used by the planners in a higher hierarchy. Now, let us suppose, the lowest physics engine layer has created a bug;

 search for a door
   --move to point A
     --open door -&gt; not working
 search for a door
   --move to point B
     --open door -&gt; success

The planner can react to the bug with replanning everything. He is trying to reach the same goal, but with different task sequence. How can we imagine the inner working of such a hierarchical planning tool? The easiest way is to see a HTN-planner as a generator for “natural language”. His primary function is to output sentences which are guiding the agent to a goal. It is similar to street-guidance system. Such software is usually separated in different layers, it can plan for the highway and also for small streets. The user have to enter the starting point and the goal and the system will calculate the steps between them. Backtracking search is used for figuring paths even if one street is blocked, so at the end the user can reach the goal.

The difference is only, that this time the game is more complex. It doesn't only contains streets but behaviors of an agent. For example, the robot navigates through the kitchen, opens the shelf and is using tools for making food.

=== Bottleneck in HTN-planning ===

Programming the solver itself to search for a plan is simple. In most cases, it will not take more then 100 lines of code because planning means only to testing out random actions until a condition is true. If the PDDL file for a domain is known, it is very easy to prove the theorem, which means to find a plan. The bottleneck in HTN-planning is somewhere else. It is the creation of the domain model, that means a machine readable prediction of how the world will change after a certain command.

Let's take in look into a formal STRIPS and PDDL file. It is mainly a syntax for describing a game-engine. We have a command for example “open door”, a precondition and the result. It is possible to construct with PDDL a game-engine for playing pacman or a textadventure. But what defines, how a pddl for a certain domain will look like? Usually only the low level game-engine is given for example the box2d simulation of a robot-grasping task. If the human-user is playing around with the physics engine he will generate some example, of how the game works. He is able to generate an internal model how to play this game. But, what he doesn't know is how the matching PDDL domainfile will look like. And here is the bottleneck. How much effort is necessary to create for given domain the PDDL file? Can this done automatically, for example with neural networks?

Let us imagine the PDDL file (or a similar specification in an object-oriented language) is given. That means, the possible actions, their outcome and sub-actions are known. The consequence is, that the game can be called solve. Because if the domain model is hierarchical organized and well implemented it is very easy for every planner to bring the system into a goal state. The current game-situation is know, also the goal of the game, and with a bit brute-force searching and backtracking the solver will find the path through it. It is simply not possible that the planner will fail.

That means, the result depends only from the domain model. If we have no domain model, or a flat model without hierarchy, then the planner will fail. If the only available domain model is the pure low-level box2d engine it makes no sense to search for plans, because the state-space is way to huge. The only bottleneck is the question of how to construct the domain model. Answering this question will result into a working robot-control-system.

In general there are two options a programmer has. At first, he can type in the PDDL file from scratch in his texteditor and see it as a software-engineering process. He can formulate requirements to the domain model to express which features are needed. Then he can track the changes with a version control system and test the model in a simulator. Such technique will result into a working domain model, but it is time consuming. The other option is to use some kind of data-driven learning method. Which means to record a gametrace in a logfile and generate the domain model automatically. This method needs very little human effort but it is unclear what the result will be.

A more easier task is not generate a domain model from scratch but testing out a given domain model if his predicted actions are correct. We are taken a PDDL file and running it against a low-level game-engine and at the end both models must be synchronous. According to previous published literature it is very hard to generate or evaluate a domain model automatically. The reason is, that a high-quality domain model not only contains Finite state machines, but also the action names in natural language, for example the “open door” task is called in the PDDL not “task1” but “open door”. It seems that automatically generate the Finite state machine plus the appropriate English-description by an algorithm is very hard and that a manual software-engineering process is the only way to get a functional domain model. Surprisingly the amount of effort isn't very high to do so. Suppose the PDDL file is 200 lines of code long. According to the average productivity such a domain model can be created by hand in 200/10=20 days by a single programmer. If he finds on github the needed PDDL file with a fulltext search it is possible to reduce the time further.

Perhaps it is time to explain how a domain model looks formally. Mainly it is a computerfile in the language STRIPS, PDDL, Prolog, Golog or even normal C++ code. It is equal to a layered game engine to express possible behaviors of an agent. The value of the domain model is equal to the used lines of code, a pddl file with 10 lines of code is inferior to a domain model which needs 1000 lines of code. A working real life domain model is similar to computercode. That means, more complex actions can not express in PDDL but needs a description in C++ object-oriented programming.

Nevertheless, there was some research in the direction of using LSTM neural networks to predict the action model with natural language. The idea is use a corpus of actions vocabulary and match this with the result in the game for predicting the future with a neural network:

“We developed a symbolic simulator based on the domain knowledge (i.e. Planning Domain Definition Language (PDDL) file) in the Tell Me Dave corpus to train the RL agent.” &lt;ref name=&quot;zamanideep2017&quot; /&gt;, page 3

The same idea is described by &lt;ref name=&quot;lin2017knowledge&quot; /&gt;. The figure on page 4 topleft explains the pipeline. At first a plan is presented: “1. move to cup, 2. grasp cup, 3. stop stop”. The plan gets executed in the game and results into some states. The LSTM neural networks learns the mapping between the actions and the consequences, so it can predict future commands:

“Our model can correctly predict complete action sequences with a probability of 92% on average.” &lt;ref name=&quot;lin2017knowledge&quot; /&gt;

=== Hierarchical plan simulation ===

A plan in computerchess contains only one layer. The moves are numbered and are executed from top to bottom:

1. f2f4 e7e5
2. f4xe5 d7d6

Such a notation can be executed against a chess-engine. It is executing the moves and can print out the board situation at the end. A less known way of executing plans is a hierarchy. The original plan contains more then one layer, the example has three layer, because of the maximum depth. Such a plan can also be executed against a simulator. But the simulator must be more sophisticated, because it reacts to an action on layer0 different then to an action on layer1.

 task1
   subtask1
     action1
     action2
   subtask2
     action3
     action4
 task2
   subtask3
     action5

The main idea behind HTN-planning is to construct hierarchical plans and testing them in an simulator. Like in the introductionary chess-example the idea is to calculate a score for a plan. It is a measurement what will happen if the plan is executed. Like a chess plan there are many possible outcomes available. The plan can run smoothly and result into the output “player1 has won”. Or the simulator can detect, that a move is illegal, then the execution will stop with an error message. But the most important feature is, that it is possible to generate a plan by a random generator and search the system backwards for a plan. That means, at the beginning we have no idea which actions are needed, and we must testing out some alternatives. This is discussed in the domain of PDDL and other hierarchical planning systems. The question is, how to construct a solver which will generate a high-score plan from scratch.

The PDDL syntax was mainly invented to increase the performance. If a high-level-action has a clear precondition, postcondition statement it is able to calculate a plan in high-speed. The PDDL environment acts like a super-fast game engine. Another technique (partial order planning) was also invented to increase the plan-search-speed. Here is the idea to plan only parts and aggregate this into much broader plans. A not so advanced planner is not using any kind of optimization and simply generates the complete plan from scratch with a random generator for testing it out against the simulator.

=== Hierarchical reinforcement learning ===

Under the term Reinforcement learning usually a data-driven is approach is discussed. The algorithm gets a database, learns from the data and is able to reproduce the movement. Because the missing programming effort, reinforcement learning is attractive in beginners of Artificial Intelligence. There are some main problems in implementing such an algorithm.

The main issue what all beginners and experts in machine learning will recognize is the topic of “my algorithm doesn't learn”. That means, they have constructed some kind of learning policy which is adapting to the data, but the error rate didn't fall under a certain level. What is wrong with the algorithm? This is very easy to answer, it is has to do with the reward function. If no reward function is available the best LSTM network will not learn. But what is a reward-function?

A game like “Mario AI” has a time period in which the game is running. For example it takes 5 minutes until a level is solved. In this time-period the agent is doing some actions, which are controlled by a neural network. The problem is, that the algorithm doesn't know if an action was right or wrong, because it is unclear what an action taken on timeframe 0:04 will has as a future consequence. Missing rewards during the game results into a huge state-space and this is equal to a not-learning reinforcement learning algorithm.

Overcome the problem is simple, and it is discussed in the literature under the term hierarchical reinforcement learning. A hierarchy is a set of actions which are grouped in layers. On the lowlevel layer primitive actions like “press button left”, “press button right” are used. On a higher level a command like “move to object” is given. A hierarchy of actions is equal to subgoals and this is equal to a reward function. For example, if the mid-level command “move to object” was entered then the rewards depends on if Mario AI has reached the object or not.

In my opinion, a hierarchical reinforcement learning system is possible to implement. The systems learns from the data all the tasks, subtasks and actions and is able to simulate the tasks in the agent's memory. The problem is, that from a bootstrapping perspective such an agent-architecture is very complex, because it is an HTN-planner and a action model learning tool at the same time. That means, after starting the software no PDDL domain is available, it is has to be learned from scratch. And if the model is ready, it will be used for planning the next action.

It is possible to explain the algorithm a bit in detail. In a normal HTN-planner a given action model is used, the pddl-file. This file is used for running a simulation. That means, the agent knows what will happen if he executes the command “move to object”. The pddl file is created by hand. In reinforcement learning the idea is to not program something but using existing data and generate the algorithm from the data. That means, Hierarchical reinforcement learning needs no initial PDDL file, it extracts the file from the data. Programming such an algorithm is technical possible but it is a very hard task. I would suggest it is easier to implement a normal HTN-planner which is filled with a manual pddl file. The reason is, that Hierarchical planning in general is very complicated and with reinforcement learning the things will get more complicated.

=== Expand of high-level actions ===

A hierarchical plan contains of actions, only the lowlevel actions can be executed directly, the mid- and high-level actions are symbolic labels:

 task1
   action1
   action2
     lowlevelaction1
     lowlevelaction2
   action3

But how exactly can we expand a high-level action? In the domain of compiler and interpreter programming a label is resolved with a grammar to a executable action. In the case of HTN-planning this idea will fail, because the high-level actions are resulting in a different sequence of lowlevel actions. It is a problem called “Answer set programming”, that means the high-level-label is equal to a goal which has to solved.

A HTN-plan is not a program which can be executed from start to end, it is more a list of goals. Some of the goals (the lowlevel actions) can be fulfilled easily, but the most goals not. Let us assume an example from Mario AI. If the goal is “jump with Mario over the wall”, then it is maybe clear what the purpose is and how the result will look like, but it is hard to transform this goal into a sequence of keyboard inputs. The good news is, that there is help. A so called brute-force solver can transform a goal into actions. It is some kind of backward search: we have possible random actions, a game engine and now we can search for the exact path in the gametree.

Apropos gametree. In classical game-theory the game tree is a graph of possible movements, it structures the decision making. In the area of HTN-planning there are many sub-game trees and the goal are equal to a desired state in the gametree. That means, the goal “jump with Mario over the wall” is pointing to a node in the gametree. On this node, the goal is fulfilled.

The question from the perspective of implementing such a system is how we formulate this problem. In the PDDL community the answer is to create a pddl domain model and search in the model for a plan. But I'm in doubt if this is the best way, because the PDDL language is limited and is not able to model object-oriented relations.

From the use-case an goal-resolution system should be work that the user can give a goal and a game-engine while the system gives back a plan:

 solver(“jump with Mario over the wall”, gameengine2) -&gt; plan=”right, right, jump, right”.

The gametree of the game engine is calculated, and the textual goal is used to identify a node. Then the solver calculates the plan to reach the goal-node. Such a system must work with different game-engines and different goals:

 solver(“find the princess”, gameengine4) -&gt; plan=”jump over wall, jump on enemy, walk right”.

I know, from a certain point of view, this workflow is trivial, because it is the description of a HTN-planner. But it seems, that even the first HTN-planner was developed in the mid 1970s the concept is not very often implemented. Let us describe the complete workflow for expanding a plan into actions:

 task1
   action1 -&gt; solver(&quot;action1&quot;, gameengine1)
   action2 -&gt; solver(&quot;action2&quot;, gameengine2)
     plan: lowlevelaction1
     plan: lowlevelaction2
   action3 -&gt; solver(&quot;action3&quot;, gameengine3)

It is basically the same plan like in the beginning of the chapter, except that the high-level-goals are converted into requests to a solver.

=== Goal-Oriented Action Planning for realizing neural networks ===

Most beginners in neural networks will run into trouble because their agent have no reward function. A reward is equal to a goal, for example reaching a place on the map. In most cases the goal of the game itself is clear: win the game. But with this simple reward function it is impossible to train an agent. Suppose, the agent is doing random action ingame, is that an improvement of his situation or not? And because the algorithm can't answer the question, the agent will not learn, that means, he will not reach the goal nor he will improve his policy.

The answer to that problem is called “Goal-Oriented Action Planning”, which is basically the known “Hierarchical task network” principle adapted for computergames. GOAP means, to define a goal hiearchy which is equal to a reward function. A typical agent has a plan like “1. open door”, “2. move forward”, “3. take the key”, “4. open the door” and so forth. He has structured the game in smaller chunks, called symbolic goals. The list of all goals are stored in the goal tree and a planner is adjusting the plans in realtime. For example, if we are taking the agent into the air and placing him to another location, he replans everything.

It is possible to combine a neural network with the GOAP architecture? Yes, and it is a very good idea. The neural network is able to learn from example without programming to much manually while the GOAP principle is used for generating subgoals which guides the policy search of the agent.

The strengths and weakness of GOAP and neural networks are asymmetrical. The GOAP architecture is very strong in finding subgoals and planning. His weakness is, that the domain model has to be programmed manually. In contrast, neural networks have no subgoals and can't plan anything, but they need no manual programming and can adapt to given data. It is possible to combine both ideas into a powerful neural network cognitive architecture?

== Example ==

=== Conflict resolution in HTN-planning ===

The assumption for most HTN-planning domains is, that a working domain model is available. That means, the prediction of the model is accurate. The problem is, that this assumption is not realistic. In the figure a blue robotarm should push the object to the left. According to the HTN-domain model a push against an object moves the object. For the planner, the push action against the object will solve the problem. But in reality, a push against the object will be blocked by a second object. This case is not stored in the domain model so we have a gap between prediction and reality.

{{fig|2
|align=right
|Robotics-push-grasp-with-conflict-resolution.png
|Robotics push grasp with conflict resolution}}

What will happen, if the HTN planner is trying to create a plan? According to his domain model he will create the plan “1. push object to left”, and the planner believes this will work. After executing the plan in the simulator there is an error. That means the plan is executed but the result is different from the expectation. This is a tragedy, but it is useful information. Now the planner knows this his plan is wrong. And here comes the magic into the game. The new request to the HTN-planner is: “bring the object to the left but don't use the plan 'push object to the left', because this plan doesn't work”. That means, the planner is forced to solve the problem with a different plan. He can push the other object first and then push the original one.

It is acceptable, if the domain model isn't perfect and can't predict the reality. The HTN-planner will produce plans who doesn't work and this plans are marked as fail. In a second step, an alternative plan is generated which bypass the problem. The feature of detecting failed plans and bypass them is called “Backtracking”:

“If the decomposition is not possible (e.g. because of colliding restrictions), the planner backtracks and creates a different decomposition.” &lt;ref name=&quot;lekavy2007expressivity&quot; /&gt;, page 4

=== Lowlevel HTN-planning ===

Understanding a HTN-planner and a BDI agent is complicated, because the system contains of many submoduls. Perhaps it would help to describe the system from the bottom up? On the low-level the player can press left-key or the right-key for move his character on the screen. And the aim is to solve the game. The HTN-planner has the obligation to provide subgoals, for example to bring Mario first to the wall and then Mario should jump. Every of the subgoals can be fulfilled with pressing the left/right key. And the planner provides some more goals on the high-level-layer for example, to master level 1, or avoid an enemy. What the HTN-planner is doing is pressing right-left key to fulfill subgoals and high-level-goals. The process works in a realtime-fashion, that means the overall BDI architecture monitors the systems, calculates new subgoals and determines lowlevel actions to fulfill the goals.

Perhaps a small example. If the game takes 2 minutes, the normal player will have pressed 100 times on of the buttons, either left or right. Over the timespan he has navigated Mario through the level, pickups objects and jumped on top of enemies. A HTN-planner structures the 100 lowlevel actions together with the BDI-architecture in a formal way.. 

== References ==
&lt;references&gt;
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&lt;ref name=&quot;bjornsson2009cadiaplayer&quot;&gt;
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| author4    = Tuck, Christopher M
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}}
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{{cite journal
| title      = A test bed for developing intelligent synthetic characters
| author     = Laird, John E
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&lt;ref name=&quot;lekavy2007expressivity&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
| title      = Expressivity of STRIPS-like and HTN-like planning
| author     = Lekavy, Marian
| author2    = Navrat, Pavol
| year       = 2007
| conference = KES International Symposium on Agent and Multi-Agent Systems: Technologies and Applications
| pages      = 121--130
| publisher  = Springer
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;lin2017knowledge&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
| title      = Knowledge-guided recurrent neural network learning for task-oriented action prediction
| author     = Lin, Liang
| author2    = Huang, Lili
| author3    = Chen, Tianshui
| author4    = Gan, Yukang
| author5    = Cheng, Hui
| year       = 2017
| conference = Multimedia and Expo (ICME), 2017 IEEE International Conference on
| pages      = 625--630
| publisher  = IEEE
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;lugrin2007making&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
| title      = Making sense of virtual environments: action representation, grounding and common sense
| author     = Lugrin, Jean-Luc
| author2    = Cavazza, Marc
| year       = 2007
| conference = Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Intelligent user interfaces
| pages      = 225--234
| publisher  = ACM
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;porteous2009controlling&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
| title      = Controlling narrative generation with planning trajectories: the role of constraints
| author     = Porteous, Julie
| author2    = Cavazza, Marc
| year       = 2009
| conference = Joint International Conference on Interactive Digital Storytelling
| pages      = 234--245
| publisher  = Springer
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=&quot;rudenko2007overview&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
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| author     = Rudenko, D
| author2    = Borisov, A
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| conference = Scientific Proceedings Of Riga Technical University, Ser
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{{cite conference
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| year       = 1975
| conference = Proceedings of the 4th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence IJCAI'75
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&lt;ref name=&quot;wray2005introduction&quot;&gt;
{{cite journal
| title      = An introduction to Soar as an agent architecture
| author     = Wray, Robert E
| author2    = Jones, Randolph M
| year       = 2005
| publisher  = Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK
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| pages      = 53--78
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&lt;ref name=&quot;zamanideep2017&quot;&gt;
{{cite conference
| title      = Deep Reinforcement Learning using Symbolic Representation for Performing Spoken Language Instructions
| author     = Zamani, Mohammad Ali
| author2    = Magg, Sven
| author3    = Weber, Cornelius
| author4    = Wermter, Stefan
| year       = 2017
| conference = 2nd Workshop on Behavior Adaptation, Interaction and Learning for Assistive Robotics (BAILAR) on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN), 26th IEEE International Symposium on
}}
&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;/references&gt;</text>
      <sha1>9e6tfoiuzskewhl650c43de9ys4vgcv</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Social Victorians/People/Churchill</title>
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      <text bytes="16796" sha1="4f6q2g1ssr2khzvshff9gmgy06ska5j" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
Lady Randolph Churchill, Winston Churchill's mother, was an American, Jennie Jerome. After Lord Randolph Churchill died in 1895, probably of syphilis, she married twice more, each husband younger than the one before. Marie, Queen of Romania (Roumania at the time) described her as young woman:&lt;blockquote&gt;Lady Randolph was a ... flashing beauty, and might almost be taken for an Italian or a Spaniard. Her eyes were large and dark, her mouth mobile with delicious, almost mischievous curves, her hair blue-black and glossy, she had something of a Creole about her. She was very animated and laughed a lot, showing beautiful white teeth, and always looked happy and amused.&lt;ref&gt;Marie, Queen of Roumania. ''The Story of My Life''. London, 1934, Vol I, p. 81. Qtd in&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Also Known As ==
*Family name: Spencer-Churchill
*The family name of the [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough | Duke of Marlborough]] is Spencer-Churchill
*This is the page for the family of Randolph Churchill and Jennie Jerome Churchill.
*Sir Winston Churchill

== Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies ==

== Timeline ==
'''1874 April 15''', Jennie Jerome and Randolph Spencer-Churchill married at the British Embassy in Paris.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;Jennie Jerome.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106192|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1895 January 29''', Randolph Spencer-Churchill died.

'''1897 July 2, Friday''', Lady Randolph Churchill attended the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House, as did her sons Winston and Jack.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Sebba, Anne. ''American Jennie: The Remarkable Life of Lady Randolph Churchill''. W. W. Norton, 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''1897 December to early 1898 January''', Lady Randolph wore her costume from the ball at the annual end-of-December-and-early-January party at Blenheim Palace. 

'''1900 June 3, Sunday, Whit Sunday''', Jennie (Lady Randolph) Churchill was present at a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1900s#3 June 1900, Sunday|Whitsun house party at Sandringham House]]. She was &quot;just back from her hospital ship which had been a boon in South Africa, but fractiously insisting she is going to marry George Cornwallis-West.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt;{{rp|195, qting Lord Knutsford}} Leslie says, &quot;Jennie, who had been argumentative all weekend, would almost immediately marry her young George.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot; /&gt;{{rp|197}}

'''1900 July 28''', Lady Randolph Churchill and George Cornwallis-West married.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

'''1902 August 9''', just after King Edward VII's coronation [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] tried &quot;to reach the Ladies' before anyone else&quot;:&lt;blockquote&gt;After the long ceremony she tried to hurry out in the wake of the royal procession, but found herself stopped by a line of Grenadier Guards. Leonie [&lt;nowiki/&gt;[[Social Victorians/People/Leslie|Leonie Leslie]]] and Jennie [Lady Randolph Churchill], who were descending from the King's special box, heard her upbraiding the officers in front of all the other peeresses, many of whom were themselves most uncomfortable. Then, trying to push her way past them, she missed her footing and fell headlong down a flight of steps to roll over on her back at the feet of the Chancellor of the Exchequer ([[Social Victorians/People/Hicks-Beach|Michael Hicks Beach]]), who stared paralyzed at this heap of velvet and ermine. The [[Social Victorians/People/de Soveral|Marquis de Soveral]] swiftly took charge of the situation and had her lifted to her feet while [[Social Victorians/People/Asquith|Margot Asquith]] nimbly retrieved the coronet, which was bouncing along the stalls, and placed it back on her head. It was a moment in which younger women naturally had to give precedence to an angry Duchess.&lt;ref name=&quot;:28&quot;&gt;Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|190}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''1914 April 1''', Lady Randolph Churchill and George Cornwallis-West divorced.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2021-09-07|title=George Cornwallis-West|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Cornwallis-West&amp;oldid=1042934380|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cornwallis-West.&lt;/ref&gt; He married Mrs. Patrick Campbell on 6 April 1914.
[[File:La Emperatriz Theodora - Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant.jpg|alt=Old painting of an Empress from ancient times, dressed opulently, like a fantasy figure|thumb|Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant's 1887 Empress Theodora]]

== Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball ==
Other members of the Spencer-Churchill family were present and are discussed on the [[Social Victorians/People/Marlborough |page for the Duke of Marlborough]].[[File:Jeanette-Jennie-Churchill-ne-Jerome-Lady-Randolph-Churchill-as-the-Empress-Theodora-wife-of-Justinian.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black-and-white photograph of a standing woman richly dressed in an historical costume with a crown and holding an orb|Jennie, Lady Randolph Churchill as Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian. ©National Portrait Gallery, London.]]
=== Jennie (Lady Randolph) Churchill ===
At the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball | Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]], Lady Randolph Churchill was dressed as Empress Theodora of Byzantium. She was at Table 1 in the first supper seating and was in the &quot;Oriental&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“Ball at Devonshire House.” Evening ''Mail'' 05 July 1897 Monday: 8 [of 8], Col. 1a–4c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003187/18970705/070/0008.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 1c}} or the Duchess procession.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1a–4c ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

Lafayette's portrait (left) of &quot;Jeanette ('Jennie') Churchill (née Jerome), Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian&quot; in costume is photogravure #193 in the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/Photographs#The Album of Photographs|album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire]] and now in the National Portrait Gallery.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker &amp; Boutall after various photographers.&quot; 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.&lt;/ref&gt; The printing on the portrait says, &quot;Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian,&quot; with a Long S in ''Empress''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora.&quot; ''Diamond Jubilee Fancy Dress Ball''. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158556/Jeanette-Jennie-Churchill-ne-Jerome-Lady-Randolph-Churchill-as-the-Empress-Theodora-wife-of-Justinian.&lt;/ref&gt;

The Lafayette Negative Archive has 5 poses plus some closeups of Lady Randolph in costume. They are higher resolution than the image from the album in the National Portrait Gallery but not in the public domain:

# Standing, nearly full length, masked background: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1424.html
# Seated facing front but looking to her right: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1468a.html
# Seated facing front but looking front, left hand raised, white flaw on the negative?: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1468.html
# Standing, facing her right, the pose which was used for the album, but the album image appears to have a platform painted in?. Also, two closeups, one of her head and crown, the other of one of the images at the hem of her ??: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1467b.html
# Standing, 3/4 to her left facing front, with lily in a ballet-pose hand; closeup of head: http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1467e.html
[[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Benjamin-Constant|Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant]] designed Lady Randolph's 1897 costume, and Jean-Philippe Worth of Paris made it.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/chu1424.html#N_4_|title=Lady Randolph Churchill (1854-1921), née Jennie Jerome by Lafayette 1897|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2026-06-22}}&lt;/ref&gt; Benjamin-Constant painted and exhibited Empress ''Theodora'' (above right) in 1887. A 6th-century mosaic icon of Theodora (bottom right) might have influenced Benjamin-Constant, or perhaps Lady Randolph Churchill. Lady Randolph's costume bears some resemblance to both the painting and the mosaic, perhaps through Benjamin-Constant, who was best known as a society portrait painter. 

He also designed opera soprano Nellie Melba's &quot;angel cloak&quot; for Melba's 1891 performance as Elsa in ''Lohengrin''. The cloak has a row of Byzantine-looking medallions with faces of angels, similar to those at the hem of Lady Randolph Churchill's tunic. Like Lady Randolphs' costume, Melba's cloak was constructed by Jean-Philippe Worth of Paris. The cloak can be seen [https://omeka.cloud.unimelb.edu.au/grainger/exhibits/show/objects_of_fame/item/387 here] (https://omeka.cloud.unimelb.edu.au/grainger/exhibits/show/objects_of_fame/item/387).[[File:Theodora - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) - croped.jpg|thumb|Detail of 6th-century mosaic icon of Theodora and attendants in the Basilica San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy]]
==== Descriptions of Her Costume ====
*According to the ''Carlisle Patriot'', which often has more detail than other papers, &quot;Among other Eastern Queens of ancient line was Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, in a dress of golden gauze thick with jewel-encrusted embroidery and wearing a high jewelled headdress, while in her right hand she carried a gold diamond-encircled ord [sic].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball: Unparalleled Splendour.&quot; ''Carlisle Patriot'' Friday 9 July 1897: 7 [of 8], Col. 4a–b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000365/18970709/084/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;
*&quot;Lady Randolph Churchill as the Empress Theodora, wore a diadem of quite barbaric splendour, with one large jewel resting in the middle of her forehead, and her dress was one of the great successes of the evening.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;“The Social Peepshow.” ''Gentlewoman'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 26 [of 68], Col. 1a–b; print p. 80. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970717/145/0026.&lt;/ref&gt; (print p. 80, Col. 1a)
*&quot;''Theodora'', the wife of the ''Emperor Justinian'', was next, represented by Lady Randolph Churchill, with the Hon. Mrs. A. Bouurke as her attendant. [new paragraph] Lady Randolph makes a stately ''Theodora''; her long black hair hanging on her shoulders, the under-dress of Eastern fabric, cream, worked in squares of green and gold, and draperies from the neck of green and mauve.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Tableaux and Burlesque at Blenheim.&quot; ''Gentlewoman'' 8 January 1898, Saturday: 59 [print], 41 [of 56, BNA], Col. 1a, 2a, 3a–b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18980108/207/0041.&lt;/ref&gt;
*Biographer Anne Sebba says she went as Empress Theodora of Byzantium: &quot;The Empress, a former courtesan as powerful as she was beautiful, was the wife of the Emperor Justinian I. She had dozens of admirers and was generally held in low regard by respectable society. Shane [Leslie, her nephew] commented somewhat cruelly that Jennie would have resembled Theodora even without fancy dress.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 206}}

==== Commentary on Her Costume ====

* The multiple layers make it impossible to see how this costume was constructed, in spite of an unusual number of images to look at. The costume has an elaborate headdress with a veil, an ornate tunic and a '''large''' gauzy underdress with full pagoda sleeves.
* Made up of a crown with a veil, a filet around her forehead and earpieces, her headdress must have been heavy. The crown is likely attached to the filet to keeping it from being pulled back by the trailing veil and its own weight.
* The fabric of the gauzy underdress and sleeves has sequins or something similar of different colors, perhaps gold and green, as one report suggests. The fabric is gauze or chiffon and not stiff the way organza would be. The fabric of the veil is also gauzy, though it lacks the sequins or beads.
* Made of a shiny, perhaps satin, fabric the tunic has two panels (one in front and the other in back) with no side seams. The panels are attached at the shoulders, making squared-off cap sleeves. The panels are decorated with circles made of appliquéd braided trim and beaded flowers between the circles. The circles especially are 3-dimensional, with braid, jewels and beads. The front panel comes just to the floor, and the back one is a few inches longer. The tunic has a row of Byzantine-looking medallions of the faces of angels at the bottom of tunic that makes it even stiffer than the rest of the tunic. These angel faces are a repetition of the similar medallions on Nellie Melba's cloak and perhaps echo Theodora's face on the 6th-century mosaic icon.
* The pigeon-breast look to her bust suggests that she is wearing a Victorian corset.
* She is wearing a lot of pearls. Russell Harris says that the orb Lady Randolph is carrying is &quot;based on the Sovereign's Orb, 1661, and Queen Mary's Orb, 1689, (Tower of London).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

==== The Historical Theodora ====

=== Winston Churchill and Jack Churchill ===
Winston Churchill is pictured in the ''Gentlewoman'' story and was wearing &quot;green broché.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 34, Col. 3a; 40, Col. 2b}} Jack Churchill was also present.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; One of them was wearing a sword and fought a duel at some point that night in the garden?

== Demographics ==
*Nationality: Jennie Jerome was American, born in Brooklyn, New York&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-28|title=Lady Randolph Churchill|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Randolph_Churchill&amp;oldid=975347328|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;; Randolph Spencer-Churchill was English.

== Family ==
*Jennie Jerome Spencer-Churchill, Lady Randolph Churchill (9 January 1854 – 29 June 1921)&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
*Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill (13 February 1849 – 24 January 1895)
#Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965)
#Major John Strange Spencer-Churchill (4 February 1880 – 23 February 1947)
*Major [[Social Victorians/People/Cornwallis-West |George Frederick Myddelton Cornwallis-West]] (14 November 1874 – 1 April 1951)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Major George Frederick Myddelton Cornwallis-West.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106194|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*Montagu Phippen Porch (15 March 1877 – 8 November 1964)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-05-25|title=Montagu Porch|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montagu_Porch&amp;oldid=1356027047|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;


* Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106196|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Clementine Ogilvy Hozier, Baroness Spencer-Churchill (1 April 1885 – 12 December 1977)&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Clementine Ogilvy Hozier, Baroness Spencer-Churchill.&quot; {{Cite web|url=https://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106197|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-11-01}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*# Diana Spencer-Churchill (11 July 1909 – 19 October 1963)
*# Major Hon. Randolph Frederick Edward Spencer-Churchill (28 May 1911 – 6 June 1968)
*# Sarah Millicent Hermione Spencer-Churchill (7 October 1914 – 24 September 1982)
*# Marigold Frances Spencer-Churchill (15 November 1918 – 23 August 1921)
*# Mary Spencer-Churchill (15 September 1922 – 31 May 2014)

=== Relations ===

* Jennie Jerome Churchill was the sister of Leonie Blanche Jerome, who married [[Social Victorians/People/Leslie|Sir John Leslie]].

== Notes and Questions ==

# Lady Randolph Churchill is #132, Winston Churchill is #179 and Jack Churchill is #223 on the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball#List of People Who Attended|list of people who attended]] the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball.

== Footnotes ==
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See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].

See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]].

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries).

==Countries==
*Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997.
*Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ]
*Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC]
*The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ]
*Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ]
*Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ]
*Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ]
*Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ]
*Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ]
*[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ]

General series:
*National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC]
*Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761]
*Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP8#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C]
*The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin.
*The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York.
*World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&amp;pg=PA141#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==England==
===Counties===
See [[s:Portal:Counties]]

* Harrison, &quot;County Bibliography&quot; (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA49#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 49]

General series
*Victoria County History
*Oxford County Histories
*Pinnock's County Histories
*Shire County Guides. Shire Publications.
*Cambridge County Geographies
*Pike's New Century Series
*[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen.

Avon
*Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102

Bedfordshire
*Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ]
*Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ]
*Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Buckinghamshire
*Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ]

Cambridgeshire
*Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Devon
*Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ]
*Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ]

Derbyshire
*Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ]
*O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961

Essex
*Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC]
*&quot;The Bibliography of Essex&quot; (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine &amp; Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA72#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA283#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 283].
*&quot;The Bibliography of Essex&quot; (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ]
*Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ]
*Fenn and Lowery, &quot;An Essex Bibliography&quot;, Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 &amp; 3
*Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ]
*O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962.
*A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology &amp; History
*Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961
*Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ]
*Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club
*Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ]
*Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Kent
*Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Leicestershire
*Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &amp;c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA84#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA728#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200]
*Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ]
*Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, &quot;Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003&quot; (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society.
*Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978.
*Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ]

Sussex
*Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ]
*Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979

==France==
Bibliography:
*Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&amp;pg=PA145#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA10#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&amp;pg=PA23#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 23]. 
*Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Landscape:
*Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ]

Agenais:
*Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969.

Alsace:
*Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936
*Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ]

Angoumois:
*Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Anjou:
*Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ]

Auvergne:
*Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Béarn
*&quot;Bibliographie Béarnaise&quot;, Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&amp;pg=PA158#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ]

Brittany
*Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach]

Burgundy:
*Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ]
*Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ]
*Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC]
*Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC]
*Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ]

Champagne:
*Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ]

Dauphiné:
*Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Lorraine:
*Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ]

Maine:
*Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Normandy:
*Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]

==Japan==
Bibliography
*Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986.
*Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ]
*Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ]
*Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ]
*A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ]
*Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957.
**Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ]
**Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ]
*Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ]
*Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC].
**A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ]
*Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2].
*Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up]
*Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ]

Japanese studies
*An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ]
*Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. &quot;Bibliographies&quot; at pp 1 to 3.
*K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ]
*[[w:en:Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20]

History and culture
*John W Dower. Japanese History &amp; Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. &quot;Bibliographies &amp; Research Guides&quot; at chapter 6.

Research guides
*Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82

Encyclopedias

See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]]
*Louis-Frédéric. Japan Encyclopedia. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993.
**Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999.
*[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ]
*Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ]
*Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ]
*Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ]
**Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC]

Media
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023.
*Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Publishers
*[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026.

Press and journalism
*[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025.
*Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ]
*The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949].
*Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ]
*Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ]
*William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C]
*César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*&quot;Japan&quot;. Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&amp;pg=PA809#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 809] to 815.

Press annuals
*The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998]

Summaries of the press
*Daily Summary of Japanese Press

Foreign correspondents
*Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ]
*Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ]
*Japanese Periodicals Index
**Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC]
**Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ]
*Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ]
*Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ]
*Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ]
*List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental &amp; African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ]
*Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011.
*Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC
**Japan Information
*Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues.
*Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C]
*[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture &amp; History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ]
*Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC]
*The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ]
*Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC]
*The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up]
*Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC]
**The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ]
*About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ]
**News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up]
*[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com)
*[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/]
*The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ]
*[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC]
*PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ]
**Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ]
*Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.]
*The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&amp;pg=PP6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Newspapers

See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]]
*Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009.

*[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]]
**The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan Daily Mail
*Japan Weekly Mail
*The Japan Chronicle
**Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun)
**Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955)
**The Yomiuri (from 1958)
**The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970)
*The Asahi Shimbun: Asia &amp; Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/]
**Asahi Evening News (from 1954)
***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073]
*The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/]
**Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910]

Sports newspapers; sports dailies
*Louise do Rosario, &quot;News-stand stars&quot; in &quot;Japan&quot; (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21
*[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], &quot;Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?&quot; in &quot;Sport&quot;, [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39

News
*[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings.

Annuals and year books 
*This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA244#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915].
*The &quot;Japan Gazette&quot; Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14]
*The Japan Times Year Book

Almanacs
*Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995].
*Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ]
*[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ]

General
*Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC]
*Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] (DA Pam 550-30).
*Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan.
**Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ]
**This is Japan. Angus &amp; Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ]
*Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 &quot;Japan Korea&quot;, including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands.
*Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412.
*Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ]
*Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ]

Handbooks
*Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Introduction
*Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ].
*Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Webb. An Introduction to Japan. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ].
*Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan.

Today and yesterday
*Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ]

Today
*Buckley. Japan Today. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Contemporary
*Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA2011#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Modern
*Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

The Japanese
*Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC]
**The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ]
**Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ]

Travel books
*DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C].
*Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988.
**Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93.
**Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ]
*The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ]
*Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC]
*Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ]
*Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. (&quot;All the Best&quot; series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C]
**All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967.

Music

See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]]

==Korea==
*Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC]

[[Category:Countries]]</text>
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    <title>Category:Media reform to improve democracy</title>
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      <text bytes="10028" sha1="5lrznnbwyi648zxnb1f3lwov7kphv34" xml:space="preserve">A number of seemingly credible sources are describing an increase in political polarization worldwide. [[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]] describes how [[w:Rodrigo Duterte|Rodrigo Duterte]], former President of the [[w:Philippines|Philippines]] &quot;started ... with five hundred volunteers&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 147-8).&lt;/ref&gt; (1) creating “sock puppets,” or fake accounts that attack or praise; (2) “mass reporting,” or organizing to negatively impact a targeted account; and (3) “astroturfing,” or fake posts or lies designed to look like grassroots support or interest.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).&lt;/ref&gt; These actions tricked the algorithms of social media companies like Facebook and Twitter into amplifying fraudulent messages including incitements to violence and criminal prosecutions based on trumped up charges. The results easily overwhelmed honest media. [[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]], a Senator and former Secretary of Justice of the Philippines, spent years  in pretrial detention before the charges were dropped for lack of evidence.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, p. 158ff) and Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Leila de Lima|Leila de Lima]]&quot;, accessed 2024-07-22.&lt;/ref&gt; Ressa's news organization, [[w:Rappler|Rappler]].com, was ordered to close. Ressa herself was convicted on questionable charges. Both continued operating while the legal procedures against them were appealed.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3) and Wikipedia, &quot;[[w:Maria Ressa|Maria Ressa]]&quot;, accessed 2024-07-22.&lt;/ref&gt; Ressa says similar procedures are making major contributions to the rise of fascism and far-right nationalist populists in the US, Europe, Turkey, India, Russia, and elsewhere.&lt;ref&gt;Ressa (2022, pp. 152-3).&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:H. R. McMaster|H. R. McMaster]], former President Trump's second National Security advisor, said that &quot;The internet and social media thus provided [Russia] with a low-cost, easy way to divide and weaken America from within.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;McMaster (2020, pp. 47-48).&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:2021 Facebook leak|2021 Facebook leak]] documented how executives of [[w:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[w:Meta Platforms|Meta]] knowingly prioritized profits over action to limit incitements to violence, even facilitating the [[w:Rohingya genocide|Rohingya genocide]] in [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]], because doing otherwise would have reduced their profits. 

This &quot;Category:Media reform to improve democracy&quot; include videos of experts and activists working this issue along with 29:00 mm:ss audio files submitted to a ''Media &amp; Democracy'' series syndicated on the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica radio network]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy on Audioport--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus text and space for moderated discussions. 

Some of this work is cited in the book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which is being written -- [[w:Crowdsourcing|crowdsourced]] -- to help humans better understand how they can counter the trend toward increasing political polarization and violence by talking politics, calmly, with respect and humility, with others with whom they may vehemently disagree, because the alternative is killing humans over misunderstanding. The goal is ''not'' to convince anyone that they are wrong. Rather it is to build relationships where humans can agree to disagree agreeably and collaborate to improve issues of common concern. 

== Table of episodes == 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|+ Episodes of &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; for the [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|Pacifica Radio Network]]
|-
! 
!! colspan=3 | Date !! 
|- 
! no. || recorded !! broadcasted on [[w:KKFI|KKFI]] !! released to Pacifica !! Episode 
|-
| 56 ||  || 2026-07-21 || 2026-07-25 || [[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]
|- 
| 55 ||  || 2026-07-07 || 2026-07-11 || Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression
|- 
| 54 || 2026-06-20 || 2026-06-23 || 2026-06-27 || [[Peace Economy Project]]
|-
| 53 || 2026-05-28 || 2026-06-09 || 2026-06-13 || [[Let's agree to disagree and seek common ground]]
|-
| 52 || 2026-05-14 || 2026-05-26 ||2026-05-30 || [[How women are centered and silenced in the major media]]
|-
| 51 || 2026-05-06 || 2026-05-12 || 2026-05-16 || [[Online platforms' effects on public health, safety and democracy]]
|-
| 50 || 2026-04-09	|| 2026-04-28 || 2026-05-02 || [[How US media threaten the health of all]]
|- 
| 49 || 2026-04-06 || 2026-04-14 || 2026-04-18 || [[News suppressed for those who control money for the media]] 
|-
| 48 || 2026-03-27 || 2026-03-31 || 2026-04-04 || [[Media and war]]
|-
| 47 || 2026-03-12 || 2026-03-17 || 2026-03-21 || [[Media literacy to dispel myths and improve public policy]]
|-
| 46 || 2026-02-26 || 2026-03-03 || 2026-03-07 || [[Concerns about media, especially in Germany]]
|-
| 45 || 2026-02-12 || 2026-02-17 || 2026-02-21 || [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM]]
|-
| 44 || 2026-01-30 || 2026-02-03 || 2026-02-07 || [[Conservative media are different]]
|-
| 43 || 2026-01-15 || 2026-01-20 || 2026-01-24 || [[Medill says you can help yourself by helping improve local media]] 
|-
| 42 || 2026-01-03 || 2026-01-06 || 2026-01-10 || [[Lisa Loving on media literacy and how you can report for your community]]
|- 
| 41 || 2015-12-11 || 2025-12-23 || 2025-12-27 || [[John Maxwell Hamilton on American propaganda]] 
|- 
| 40 || 2025-12-05 || 2025-12-09 || 2025-12-13 || [[You can better protect yourself from Big Tech]]
|- 
| 39 || 2025-11-20 || 2025-11-25 || 2025-11-29 || [[Differences between media outlets including coverage of Gaza]]
|- 
| 38 || 2025-11-06 || 2025-11-11 || 2025-11-15 || [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]
|-
| 37 || 2025-10-23 || 2025-20-28 || 2025-11-01 || [[Media reform initiatives in West Africa]]  
|-
| 36 || 2025-10-03 || 2025-10-14 || 2025-10-18 || [[Seth Radwell says that the two Enlightenments tell us how to heal US political polarization]]
|-
| 35 || 2025-09-25 || 2025-09-30 || 2025-10-04 ||
[[Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK]]
|- 
| 34 || 2025-09-12 || 2025-09-16 || 2025-09-20 || [[Fighting back against the campaign of censorship and control]]
|- 
| 33 || 2025-08-28 || 2025-09-02 || 2025-08-06 || [[The role of the media in conflict]]
|- 
| 32 || 2025-07-31 || 2025-08-19 || 2025-08-21 || [[Evidence-informed public policy]]
|-
| 31 || 2025-08-01 || 2025-08-05 || 2025-08-09 || [[What the Left can learn from Fox]]
|-
| 30 || 2025-07-17 || 2025-07-22 || 2025-07-26 || [[Democratic delusions: Fix the media to fix democracy]]
|- 
| 29 || 2025-07-03 || 2025-07-08 || 2025-07-12 || [[News from Germany 1900-1945 and implications for today]]
|-
| 28 || 2025-06-12 || 2025-06-24 || 2025-06-28 || [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher]]
|-
| 27 || 2025-06-08 || 2025-06-10 || 2025-06-14 || [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]
|- 
| 26 || 2025-05-21 || 2025-05-27 || 2025-05-31 || [[Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark]]
|- 
| 25 || 2025-05-08 || 2025-05-13 || 2025-05-17 || [[Freedom of the Press Foundation says...]]
|- 
| 24 || 2025-04-24 || 2025-04-29 || 2025-05-03 || [[Canadian journalist Marc Edge on media reform to improve democracy]]
|-
| 23 || 2025-04-10 || 2025-04-15 || 2025-04-19 || [[The value of indigenous and community radio]]
|- 
| 22 || 2025-03-28 || 2025-04-01 || 2025-04-05 || [[Trump ordered changes in public data]]
|-
| 21 || 2025-03-06 || 2025-03-11 || 2025-03-22 || [[Vulture capitalists destroying newspapers]]
|- 
| 20 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-02-25 || 2025-03-08 || [[Local newspapers limit malfeasance]]
|-
| 19 || 2025-02-06 || 2025-02-11 || 2025-02-22 || [[Palast says Trump lost, vote suppression won the 2024 elections]]
|-
| 18 || 2025-01-25 || 2025-02-04 || 2025-02-12 || [[Defend free speech hybrid town hall]]
|-
| 17 || 2025-01-13 || 2025-01-14 || 2025-01-25 || [[Media in the Syrian conflict]]
|-
| 16 || 2024-12-20 || 2024-12-31 || 2025-01-04 || [[HR 9495, the nonprofit-killer bill, per Michael Novick]]
|- 
| 15 || 2024-12-13 || 2024-12-24 || 2024-12-21 || [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard]]
|-
| 14 || 2024-12-02 || 2024-12-10 || 2024-12-07 || [[Media literacy for the Arab World per Ahmed Al-Rawi]]
|-
| 13 || 2024-11-21 || 2024-11-26 || 2024-11-23 || [[Thom Hartmann on The Hidden History of the American Dream]]
|-
| 12 || 2024-10-25 || 2024-11-05 || 2024-11-09 || [[Legal concerns of Wikimedia Europe]] 
|-
| 11 || 2024-10-26 || 2024-10-19 || 2024-10-27 || [[Project 2025 per Professor Brooks]]
|-
| 10 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-01 || 2024-10-12 || [[Jacob Ware on far-right terrorism in the US]]
|-
| 9 || 2024-09-13 || 2024-09-17 || 2024-09-29 || [[Dis- and misinformation and their threats to democracy]]
|- 
| 8 || 2024-09-11 || 2024-11-12 || 2024-09-14 || [[22nd Century Initiative]]
|- 
| 7 || 2024-08-22|| 2024-08-27 || 2024-08-31 || [[Global Project Against Hate &amp; Extremism (GPAHE)]]
|-
| 6 || 2024-08-19 || 2024-08-20 || 2024-08-24 || [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says]]
|-
| 5 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-13 || 2024-08-17 || [[Legal concerns of Free Press including Section 230]]
|-
| 4 || 2024-08-02 || 2024-08-06 || 2024-08-10 || [[How psychological and interpersonal processes are influenced by human-computer interactions]]
|-
| 3 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-07-30 || 2024-08-03 || [[Dean Baker on Internet companies threatening democracy internationally and how to fix that]]
|-
| 2 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-04-29 || 2021-05-16 || [[Media reform per Freepress.net]]
|- 
| 1 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-02-23 || 2021-03-17 ||[[Unrigging the media and the economy]]
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography == 

* &lt;!-- H. R. McMaster (2020) Battlegrounds: The Fight to Defend the Free World--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104774898}}
* &lt;!--Maria Ressa (2022) How to Stand Up To a Dictator--&gt;{{cite Q|Q117559286}}

[[Category:Interdisciplinary studies]]

[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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    <title>Federal Writers' Project – Life Histories/2021/Spring/105/Section 88/Ed Currin</title>
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      <text bytes="10336" sha1="s2nq8oxvsqhowe4eiq8nr6vdl1e4uh3" xml:space="preserve">== Overview ==
On January 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;, 1939, Ed Currin was interviewed by the Federal Writers’ Project, a government program that provided employment after the Great Depression (refer link). 

He was 82-years old at the time and had been living in Oxford, North Carolina for 29 years.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;  

__TOC__

== Biography ==

=== Childhood ===
Ed Currin was born on his great-grandfather’s plantation in 1857 in Granville County, North Carolina. He was the oldest out of seven siblings. When his great-grandfather died, Currin’s father sold the land, and they moved to different a plantation located in Frank County, North Carolina where Ed Currin would grow up.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; It was an era where tensions were high between the North and the South due to the moral issues of slavery. [[File:Oxford, Granville County, North Carolina.jpg|thumb|Oxford, Granville, North Carolina]]After the Civil War ended, Currin began working at the early age of 12. He would wake up 4 A.M and plow till sundown, only taking breaks for supper and lessons.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

==== Education ====
Ed Currin lived in a rural town, so he never attended public school. Instead, he was homeschooled by a teacher his mother hired for him and his sublings.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; But since Currin began working at an early age, he did not receive any long-term, adequate schooling.
{{Infobox person
|name =Ed Currin
|birth date =1857 (age 82)
|death date =Unknown date
|birth place =Granville County, North Carolina
|spouse =Allice Currin
|nationality =American
|ethnicity =White
|occupation =* Jack-Of-All Trades
* Farmer
* Mill-worker
|website =
}}


==== Teen ====
When Ed Currin was 17-years old, he was given the opportunity to establish his first official business. Currin and his father, along with the help of several men, rebuilt a dam that was previously owned by his grandfather. It only took them 3 months to complete the project and after doing so, Currin’s father gave him the title to the land and a notebook.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; 

This was a turning point in Currin’s life. The notebook would hold the records of the dam’s profit from toll fees.

=== Family ===
By his late 20s, Ed Currin making enough money to settle down and start his own family. He married Mavis, his second cousin, and he described her as “the prettiest girl [he] ever saw.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; She was a religious woman who Currin courted for over a year. Currin was 29-years old when he proposed to Mavis and in the following year, they got married and had their first child together.

Mavis died several years before this interview took place. The stories Currin told of Mavis reflected a happy, fulfilling marriage, such as the time he built two fishponds half-a-mile from their home for her. He stocked it with catfish, carp and perch because Mavis loved to fish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Ed Currin's first child, Dave, died when he was about 2-years old. Dave was standing on a cart when it lunged him, head first, toward a wall. Currin was present in the room but his back was turned away. Dave fell unconscious and for 8 days, he fell in and out of coma until “God took him”.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; 

After the incident, Currin revealed that he and Mavis &quot;forgot about everything else.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; They were able to move on when they realized they still had the second son, Martin. They focused all of their attention on him and had a new baby about every other year- Sally, Josie, Kate and Becky.

=== Careers ===

==== Farmer ====
Ed Currin lived on a farm in a hill above his newly built dam. He owned several acres of land, all of which were handed down to him by his father or purchased using the profits from the dam’s toll fees.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; He used this land to grow his own food, farm tobacco crops, and raise livestock. 

On top of that, the land contained an abundance of woods that allowed him to produce lumber. Currin mastered the art of carpentry and was able to construct multiple houses and buildings for his farm, using his own wood. He owned five tenant families, two of them were white and three of them were black. Currin also built them a house for their own.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; 

==== '''Saw-Miller''' ====
According to Ed Currin, he claimed to have  sold the most lumber in his entire county.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; He owned a big sawmill and had a land that was abundant in wood, so his lumber was used to build many of the buildings in Oxford.  

==== Jack-of-all-trade ====
When the opportunity allowed it, Ed Currin bought land, machinery, furniture, tobacco, mules and horses to re-sell for profit, which ranged from 50 to 500 percent.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Currin travelled around his county to make purchases like this from small farmers and landowners.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; His biggest transaction was the purchase of an entire block of land. He made most of his money in this field, trading. 

=== Legacy ===
Many people knew Ed Currin to be an honest, family-oriented businessman. He paid and fed his tenant workers well and provided adequate housing for them.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; He had extra rooms in his home which were always filled up with anyone who needed a place to stay.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Ed Currin, interview.   &lt;/ref&gt; He paid for his children's education, and even after they had their own families, Currin still financially supported them.

The home Currin was interviewed in was one he previously built and owned. He gave the title to his daughter, Becky, after her husband died in a car accident several years prior.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; 

Currin made many sacrifices like this for his family throughout his life. In order to financially support them, he had to sell all of his mills, properties and livestock.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

So even before the Great Depression in 1929, money was already scarce for Ed Currin.

== Social Context ==

=== '''The Tobacco Industry in North Carolina''' ===
The tobacco industry has always been a big part of many southern state's economy. Buck Duke created the first tobacco factory in North Carolina.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; In 1881, James Bonsack patented the Bonsack Cigarette Rolling Machine which caused a significant rise in the popularity of cigarette smoking.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; By the late 1800s, &quot;Duke was manufacturing more cigarettes than any other company in the world.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;Milov, &quot;''The Cigarette&quot;''&lt;/ref&gt;Many big and small tobacco farmers benefitted from the competition amongst big tobacco companies like Duke. 

Despite the fact that growing tobacco was an area dominated by large farms, small farmers still played a part in the industry as tenant farmers or sharecroppers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Blog, &quot;Bright Leaves&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; However, after the Great Depression, the demand for tobacco decreased as Americans struggle to stay afloat. This marked the end of the popularity of the tobacco industry until World War II.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

Dynamic Tools offers advanced cigarette rolling machine solutions designed to support modern tobacco manufacturing businesses with improved efficiency, accuracy, and consistent production quality. With a focus on reliable engineering and durable machinery, Dynamic Tools provides high-performance equipment that helps manufacturers streamline their production processes. A quality cigarette rolling machine plays an important role in achieving uniform cigarette formation, reducing manual effort, minimizing material wastage, and increasing productivity. Built with precision technology and user-friendly operation, Dynamic Tools machinery helps businesses maintain smooth workflow and long-term performance. Whether you are looking for efficient tobacco manufacturing equipment or dependable industrial solutions, Dynamic Tools delivers innovative machinery designed to meet evolving industry requirements. 

=== Tenant Farmers ===
Following the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery, many farm owners found themselves in need of a new line employee. Since they could not afford to pay for high wages, many farm owners divided their land to be temporarily owned by laborers, who could raise crops on their new land, in exchange for work.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Perrott and Sewlyn. &quot;Sickness and the Depression: A Preliminary Report upon a Survey of Wage-Earning Families in Ten Cities.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; However, &quot;thousands of farmers, in spite of years of scrimping, have not been able to accumulate enough to make a first payment on a farm of their own.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; This was due to the mistreatment of farm owners who often took advantage of tenant farmers. Nevertheless, there were good farm owners who paid their tenants well. 

=== The Roaring Twenties ===
The Roaring Twenties was a period of substantial change in the political and social climate of America. This period of time is particularly marked by a migration from rural to urban living. Due to the nation’s economic growth between the years 1920 and 1929, the lives of many people had taken a strange new turn.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;History.com Editors. “The Roaring Twenties.” &lt;/ref&gt; Americans had all of a sudden obtained disposable income, leading to the purchasing of luxury goods and general economic stimulation. Along with this, new music like Jazz was sweeping across the nation, women felt freer and more accepting of their sexuality, and shared culture became more widespread and diverse.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

However, the Roaring Twenties did not benefit everyone. For some Americans, the series of previous wars in their lifetime caused permanent damage in their economic stance. 

== Notes ==
&lt;references responsive=&quot;&quot; /&gt;

== References ==

* &quot;Bright Leaves.&quot; POV (blog). ''American Documentary, Inc''.
*Ed Currin, interviewed by Cannady, Beth and E. Massengill, January 14th, 1939. Folder 310, in the Federal Writers Project Papers #3709, Southern Historical Collection, The Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
*History.com Editors. “The Roaring Twenties.” A&amp;E Television Networks, 2010.
* Milov, Sarah. ''The Cigarette''. Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press, 2019. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674242883&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Perrott, J, and Collins Sewlyn. &quot;Sickness and the Depression: A Preliminary Report upon a Survey of Wage-Earning Families in Ten Cities.&quot; ''The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly'' 12, no. 3 (1934): 218-24.</text>
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    <title>Talk:Anatomy</title>
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I created this page because the information on the other page is very drastically disorganized. {{Unsigned|Earth 3347|1 February 2022‎}}

:{{At|Earth 3347}} That would be a reason to merge the content. If the content on this page is disorganized, please improve it rather than creating a new page with the same content in a better order. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:31, 1 February 2022 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="586" sha1="syjcwylbv589j6uo6jk4pzolnptaon1" xml:space="preserve">== Merge ==

Please don't merge this page with the other anatomy page.
I created this page because the information on the other page is very drastically disorganized. {{Unsigned|Earth 3347|1 February 2022‎}}

:{{At|Earth 3347}} That would be a reason to merge the content. If the content on this page is disorganized, please improve it rather than creating a new page with the same content in a better order. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 23:31, 1 February 2022 (UTC)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
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      <comment>/* Applications */</comment>
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      <text bytes="9878" sha1="mpng0soyjtiidz1wc0xw8gqgkqiz3md" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260622.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

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    <title>Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers</title>
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      <text bytes="63109" sha1="joez47lyx9hpt4ca3p2q1ab15rlt3b9" xml:space="preserve">== Dressmakers, Modistes, Costumiers, Perruquiers and Jewelers ==

=== Not to Mention Seamstresses, Tailors, Lace-makers, Milliners, and Lady's Maids ===
Dominated as the social world was by women, fashion was an important part of the reportage on social events, with some reporters demonstrating knowledge of fabrics, cuts, laces, and so on. The Victorians had specialized terms for people who designed and made clothing, especially very fashionable clothes or haut couture, and specialized careers for those people who assisted women to acquire, manage and wear that clothing. Because of the popularity of fancy-dress or costume parties, some of the people assisting them were costumiers from the world of theatre and opera. The terminology and examples that follow are generally focused on the end of the 19th century in London.

== Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes ==
Discussing the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball, the ''Gentlewoman'' says, &quot;A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Among those who helped construct the costumes and wigs include the following:

=== Bettans ===
Mary Farnan Bettans

84 Jermyn Street, London

Mary Bettans, Queen Victoria's &quot;official royal dressmaker&quot; early in her reign, maker of Victoria's wedding dress. In 1841, she had &quot;a 'well conducted establishment' with journeywomen, in-door apprentices and improvers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-27|title=Mary Bettans|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Bettans&amp;oldid=1324345065|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1846 she was listed as &quot;Court Dress and Dress Maker,&quot; and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Johnston|Elizabeth Johnston]] was &quot;Dress Maker Extraordinary.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;

=== Creed, House of ===
House of Creed, in the 19th century British tailors and habit maker established in Paris like the House of Worth. Their clients included Queen Victoria, Empress Eugènie, and Count d'Orsay; Eugènie issued Creed &amp; Cumberland a Royal Warrant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-22|title=Creed (perfume house)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creed_(perfume_house)&amp;oldid=1307198553|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later became a perfumier.

=== Doucet ===
A gossipy article in ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' (citing the ''Daily Mail'') says, &quot;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“Derbyshire Sayings and Doings.” ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' 12 June 1897, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 2A. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000228/18970612/018/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; although she went as Cleopatra, according to the commemorative album, and not Zenobia (only the Duchess of Devonshire went as Zenobia).

=== Mme Durrant ===

Mme Durrant's concern, at the end of the 19th century, at least, was at 116 &amp; 117 New Bond-street, London W. An ad in ''The Queen'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Court Dressmaker and Milliner. The Latest Paris Models in Morning, Afternoon, Tailor, and Evening Gowns, Millinery, and Mantles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Madame Durrant, Court Dressmaker and Milliner.&quot; ''The Queen'' 15 April 1899, Saturday: 11 [of 88], Cols. 2–3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18990415/082/0011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mme Durrant made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry|Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lines for the Ladies.&quot; ''Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough'' Thursday 16 June 1898: 4 [of 4], Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000159/18980616/060/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; The dress and fabrics for the Marchioness of Londonderry as well as her quadrille, were made in Britain or Ireland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;&quot;This Morning’s News.&quot; London ''Daily News'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 3b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970706/038/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mme Durrant made at least a couple of dresses for Queen Mary (early 20th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/278730664423122186/|title=1900 - 1919 Clothing panosundaki Pin|website=Pinterest|language=en|access-date=2023-03-08}} https://pin.it/2GUiBm7 and https://pin.it/2GUiBm7.&lt;/ref&gt; Also, perhaps early 20th-c, Durrant had an address on Dover Street.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html|title=queerplaces - Sir Edwin Hardy Amies|website=www.elisarolle.com|access-date=2023-03-08}} http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html.&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Queen'' also has ads for a &quot;Mr. Durrrant's Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker&quot; in Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1892.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Durrant Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker.&quot; [advertisement] ''The Queen'' 06 February 1892, Saturday: 5 [of 81], Cols. 2–3c [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18920206/043/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Johnston ===
Elizabeth Johnston

Elizabeth Johnston was listed as &quot;Dress Maker Extraordinary&quot; in 1846.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;

=== Mrs. Mason ===
M. or Mrs. Mason, of 4, New Burlington Street, W.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* &quot;Dress and Fashion&quot; answer by Adern Holt in the ''Queen'' to queries posed by &quot;Correspondents&quot;: &quot;F&lt;small&gt;ANCY&lt;/small&gt; D&lt;small&gt;RESS&lt;/small&gt;. — For the beautiful ball such as you describe you cannot do better than go to Mrs Mason, New Burlington-street, for the costume about which you inquire. It needs very careful making and the most artistic designs, and these you would be sure to obtain there, for the dresses she made for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball were quite artistic masterpieces.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 97], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970717/231/0049.&lt;/ref&gt;
Mrs. Mason made costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Ashburton#Mabel, Lady Ashburton|Mabel, Lady Ashburton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/de Trafford#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Violet, Lady de Trafford]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Sophie Scott|Lady Sophie Scott]]
# Lady Lurgan&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Leeds#Katherine, Duchess of Leeds|Katherine, Duchess of Leeds]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Sutherland#Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland|Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson#Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson|Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Edmonstone#Lady Ida Edmonstone|Lady Ida Edmonstone]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Goelet#Costumes at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Mary Goelet]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish#Lady Edward Cavendish|Lady Edward Cavendish]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Spencer-Churchill Wilson#Lady Sarah Wilson|Lady Sarah Wilson]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Derby#Constance Villiers Stanley, Countess of Derby|Countess of Derby]]
#Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Gwendolen Bourke]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
#Duchess of Roxburghe&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Morin-Blossier ===
The French &quot;tailoring workshop&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://fashion.mam-e.it/morin-blossier/|title=Morin-Blossier -|date=2016-02-05|language=it-IT|access-date=2022-04-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Morin-Blossier &quot;possibly&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; made the dress worn to  the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball]] by

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* [[Social Victorians/People/Prince Charles of Denmark|Princess Maud of Wales]] (Princess Charles of Denmark)&lt;ref name=&quot;:43&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Prince and Princess Carl of Denmark, later King Haakon VII (1872-1957) and Queen Maud of Norway (1869-1938),  and Princess Victoria of Wales (1868-1935), as a 16th century Danish courtier, and Ladies-in-Waiting at to Marguerite de Valois.&quot; &quot;List of Sitters.&quot; ''In Calm Prose''. 2011 http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/denmark.html.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Duchess of York&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Princess Victoria&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
Alexandra seems to have preferred Morin-Blossier to the House of Worth.

=== Redfern ===
Redfern &amp; Sons

John Redfern

Cowes, Isle of Wight, eventually with extensions in Paris, London, Edinburgh and New York.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-24|title=Redfern (couture)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Redfern_(couture)&amp;oldid=1307596205|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Active 1855–1932, specialized in tailored dresses and suits, especially for women who went yachting, rode horses or played tennis — or who just liked the look of the tailored outfit.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; The Paris house was a couturier by the early 1890s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

==== Clients ====

* Lillie Langtry, 1879&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Queen Victoria, Dressmaker by Royal Appointment, 1888&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Alexandra, Princess of Wales&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

=== Messrs Russell and Allen ===
Old Bond-street., W.

Made presentation dresses for 8 of the following in 1913&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Their Majesties' Court.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 17 May 1913, Saturday: 35 [of 64], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/19130517/296/0035. Same print title, p. 787.&lt;/ref&gt;:

# Mrs. A. C. Hardy, of Montreal
# Mrs. Thorburn
# Mrs. Ralph Berners
# Miss Spencer Warwick
# [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Miss [Daphne] Bourke]]
# Mrs. Henry Barran
# Miss D. Hickman
# Hon. Irene Molesworth
# The Hon. Edith Winn
# The Hon. Hilaria St. Aubyn
# The Hon. Mary Charteris
# Miss Grace Holley

=== Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin ===
Mrs Mary Sims, Dawson Street, Dublin

Mrs Sims made a dress decorated with beetle wings in c. 1880; this dress still exists and, according to Elaine Hewitt, is in the NMI collections.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, Naional Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks. Saturday 16th February 2013. https://www.academia.edu/2455567/The_material_culture_of_infancy_and_early_childhood_in_Ireland_c_1680_1830?auto=download.&lt;/ref&gt; Hewitt's precis for an exhibit called ''Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, National Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks'' says, &quot;Mary Sims was a court dressmaker by Royal appointment, who established herself from 1863 as the most prominent dressmaker in Dublin.&quot;

Mrs Sims made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

* [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan|Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan]]

Other people Mrs Sims made clothes for:

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 1885: Kate Strasdin offers an example of Alexandra's strategic use of clothing: a gown Alexandra wore to a Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace was, according to the ''Times'', &quot;a dress of rich yellow satin and silver brocade, draped with silver lace, corsage to correspond, made by Mrs Sims of Dublin.&quot;{{rp|1885, p. 11}} What is strategic is the release of Mrs Sims's name, according to Strasdin, since &quot;[t]he communication of this detail can only have come from the royal household itself, demonstrating the control that Alexandra exerted over details released to the press relating to her appearance.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Strasdin, Kate, &quot;Reporting Royal Dress: Queen Alexandra and Royal Image Making.&quot; Falmouth University Research Repository. http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Ishbel, Marchioness Aberdeen, 1886: &quot;Ishbel, Lady Aberdeen (1857–1939), [wore a &quot;costume of an Irish lady in the thirteenth century&quot;] in 1886 while presiding over a garden party at the Vice Regal Lodge in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, an event to which the 2,000 invited guests were expected to wear clothes of Irish manufacture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Ward, &quot;Dress and National Identity: Women’s Clothing and the Celtic Revival,&quot; ''Costume'', 48:2, 2014, 193-212, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/0590887614Z.00000000050.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|199}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Madame Fréderic: made the costume for Princess Mary of Teck&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Jays, Ltd., Regent-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* M. Machinka, Conduit-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Maison Lucille: made Mrs. James's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Mrs. Nettleship: made the Countess of Yarborough's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Paquin, of Dover-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}: made the dress of Madame von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Picador&quot; designed and drew illustrations of dresses for the ''Lady's Pictorial''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashions for Fêtes, Specially Designed by 'Picador.'&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 41 [of 92], full page. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0005980/18970710/432/0041. Print title same, p. 57.&lt;/ref&gt; They drew some of the costumes for the ''Lady's Pictorial''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s big article on the Duchess of Devonshire's ball (on 10 July 1897).

=== Worth, of Paris ===
Located in Paris, Maison Worth or the House of Worth — named for owner and designer Englishman Charles Frederick Worth — was a very influential couturier in the 2nd half of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th centuries. The dresses Worth designed were typically handmade of very fine materials.&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s designs are notable for his use of lavish fabrics and trimmings, his incorporation of elements of historic dress, and his attention to fit. While the designer still created one-of-a-kind pieces for his most important clients, he is especially known for preparing a variety of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients made their selections and had garments tailor-made in Worth’s workshop.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm|title=Charles Frederick Worth (1825–1895) and the House of Worth {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|last=Krick|first=Authors: Jessa|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|language=en|access-date=2024-07-12}} https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;After having won design prizes at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, which was housed at the Crystal Palace, and the 1854 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Worth opened his own design house in Paris in 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; In 1869,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-18|title=Eugénie de Montijo|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A9nie_de_Montijo&amp;oldid=1322973534|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; the Empress Eugénie appointed him designer to the court of France&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-07-03|title=House of Worth|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Worth&amp;oldid=1232307431|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Worth.&lt;/ref&gt;:&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s rise as a designer coincided with the establishment of the Second Empire in France. The restoration of a royal house in 1852, with Napoleon III (1808–1873) as the new emperor, once again made Paris an imperial capital and the setting for numerous state occasions. Napoleon III implemented a grand vision for both Paris and France, initiating changes and modernization that revitalized the French economy and made Paris into a showpiece of Europe. The demand for luxury goods, including textiles and fashionable dress, reached levels that had not been seen since before the French Revolution (1789–99). When Napoleon III married Empress Eugénie (1826–1920), her tastes set the style at court .... The empress’ patronage ensured Worth’s success as a popular dressmaker from the 1860s onward.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Other patrons included women from Empress Eugénie's court, &quot;Elizabeth of Austria, Margherita of Italy, Mme. de Castiglione, Mme. de Pourtales, and every reigning star in the theatrical and operatic world.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]&lt;/ref&gt; (6) By the end of the 19th century, wealthy women from the US, the UK and around Europe were making their way to Maison Worth in Paris.

Besides his contributions to in developments in models of promotion and business for the couture fashion house, Worth's real influence took the form of a particular look, which for the end of the century we call the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Traditional Style|traditional Victorian style]]. After Charles Worth's death in 1895, his sons Gaston-Lucien and Jean-Philippe &quot;succeeded in maintaining his high standards,&quot; and Jean-Philippe especially &quot;follow[ed] his father’s aesthetic, with his use of dramatic fabrics and lavish trimmings.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; While we associate a particular look with it, the House of Worth designed its clothing for its customers, whose relationship with the traditional style could be nuanced and fluctuating. For example, Lillie Langtry sometimes purchased her gowns at Maison Worth, even at the time she was known not to be corseted, so the style of the House of Worth is also less static and extreme than the gowns of some of its customers might suggest.

==== Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball ====
The House of Worth made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]], although the costume was designed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#M. Comelli|Attilio Comelli]].
# Lady Randolph Churchill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Mrs. Arthur Paget&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Daisy, Countess of Warwick&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Costumiers for Theatres and Operas ==
At the end of the 19th century, the profession of costumier depended on a knowledge of the history of clothing, although the costumiers themselves  generally did not feel constrained by notions of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Historical Accuracy|historical accuracy]] for the productions they designed for. ['''until the industrial revolution women made fabrics and clothing, plus ppl wore clothing every day, so clothing was not considered important. Planché; actual history of clothing vs just looking at portraits. History of clothing: foundation garments, items specific to a particular time like a codpiece, fabrics changed and evolved over time, plus a greater variety of fabrics; fabric and empires. The idea of a coherent production design with costumes designed for the particular actor in that production may have been changing about this time; before this actors provided their own costumes; Ellen Terry was probably part of this, Gilbert and Sullivan.''']

Not present at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] but certainly very involved in it were the people who made or provided the clothing, hats, wigs, jewelry, and other accessories. Besides people who made the costumes (costumiers, dressmakers, and modistes) and wigs (perruquiers), embroiderers, jewelers and shoemakers are occasionally mentioned although almost never named in the newspaper accounts.

Not all of these may have been costumiers, at least professional ones; some of the less well known might have been [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes|clothiers]] instead.

=== Mr. Charles Alias ===
Mr. Charles Alias, 36 Soho Square

==== Personal Details ====

* Charles Georges Alias (1852 – 11 May 1921&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;Principal Probate Registry. ''Calendar of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration made in the Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England''. London, England © Crown copyright. Ancestry.com. ''England &amp; Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858-1995'' [database on-line]. Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;)
* Sarah Alias ()

Notes

# Will probated on 6 October 1921, effects of £6376 18s. 5d. to Marie Alias, widow.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
# 1881 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 114 St Martins Lane in St Martin in the Fields; his occupation is listed as Costumier (Milliner); 2 boarders and a servant were living with them: Robert Soutar (age 51, comedian/actor), Harriet Morgan (age 28, comedian/actor) and the general domestic servant Lucy Ann Hewitt (age 23). Other servants' names follow, but apparently they were not living in 114 St Martins Lane.&lt;ref&gt;''Census Returns of England and Wales, 1881''. Kew, Surrey, England: The National Archives of the UK (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), 1881. Class: ''RG11''; Piece: ''328''; Folio: ''42''; Page: ''27''; GSU roll: ''1341071''. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ''1881 England Census'' [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;
# 1891 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 36 Soho Square; his occupation is listed as Theatrical Costumier;

==== Costumier ====
[[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Comelli|M. Comelli]], designer and costumier at Covent Garden, designed the costumes that were constructed by Mr. Alias of Soho Square.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Several newspapers specifically name Mr. Alias as one of their sources of information about the costumes for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball: The London ''Echo''&lt;ref&gt;“A Jubilee Ball. Brilliant Scene at Devonshire House. Some of the Costumes Worn.” The London ''Echo'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Cols. 6a – 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0004596/18970703/027/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 2, Col. 6a}}; the London ''Evening Standard'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* The column &quot;Girls' Gossip&quot; names M. Alias in its discussion of the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;Herr von André was a splendid Benvenuto Cellini in brown and crimson, a perfect triumph of M. Alias's art. In fact, it was owing to the studious research and historical accuracy displayed by this clever costumier that so many of the dresses were so realistically pictorial. Alias dressed the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, Duke of York, Prince Christian, Lord Lathom, and about a hundred other great ones of our island for the occasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;“Girls’ Gossip.” ''Truth'' 8 July 1897, Thursday: 41 [of 70], Col. 1b – 42, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002961/18970708/089/0041.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 2c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;
*&quot;Charles Alias was French and very small. He had started as a traveller in artificial flowers and married a little dressmaker in Long Acre. They started making theatrical costumes and later moved to 36 Soho Square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI|title=As You Were: Reminiscences|last=Byng|first=Douglas|date=1970|publisher=Duckworth|isbn=978-0-7156-0543-1|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In its Appendix of Royal Warrant Holders, the 1902 ''Debrett's'' also says &quot;Charles Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square. W.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false|title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage: Comprising Information Concerning All Persons Bearing Hereditary Or Courtesy Titles, Knights, and Companions of All the Various Orders, and the Collateral Branches of All Peers and Baronets|date=1902|publisher=Dean &amp; Son, Limited|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false.&lt;/ref&gt; (n.p.; end of book)
* The ''Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'', Vol. 1, says, &quot;Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major success with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'' [a comic opera by Alfred Cellier, libretto by B. C. Stephenson, &quot;transferred&quot; from the Gaiety to the Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1886 and then to the Lyric Theatre in 1888, the most successful of the productions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-25|title=Dorothy (opera)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorothy_(opera)&amp;oldid=1146605626|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_(opera).&lt;/ref&gt;], and on into the 1890s by which ...&quot;; &quot;The Aliases made their mark in the West End when they provided the costumes for the original London production of La Fille de ...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI|title=The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre|last=G?nzl|first=Kurt|date=1994|publisher=Schirmer Books|isbn=978-0-02-871445-5|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI.&lt;/ref&gt; (taking from snippets)
* BNA search: Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square, London: 1898 shows a lot of advertisements.
* In 1892 Mr. C. Alias, 36, Soho Square, W., was a director of the 13th Annual Dramatic Ball, at the Freemasons' Tavern.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/account/register?countrykey=0&amp;showgiftvoucherclaimingoptions=false&amp;gift=false&amp;nextpage=%2faccount%2flogin%3freturnurl%3d%252fviewer%252fbl%252f0001682%252f18920213%252f011%252f0004&amp;rememberme=false&amp;cookietracking=false&amp;partnershipkey=0&amp;newsletter=false&amp;offers=false&amp;registerreason=none&amp;showsubscriptionoptions=false&amp;showcouponmessaging=false&amp;showfreetrialmessaging=false&amp;showregisteroptions=false&amp;showloginoptions=false&amp;showcaptchaerrormessage=false&amp;isonlyupgradeable=false|title=Register {{!}} British Newspaper Archive|website=www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk|access-date=2023-04-28}} https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001682/18920213/011/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In a gushing piece written for the 15 December 1899 ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'', &quot;The Bohemian Girl&quot; says that Alias executed Comelli designs for a Christmas pantomime ''Triumph of Music''. She goes on to talk about Willie Clarkson's work for another pantomime and a visit by Mrs. Langtry.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bohemian Girl, The.&quot; &quot;Preparing for the Pantomime.&quot; ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'' 15 December 1899, Friday: 24 [of 60], Cols. 1b–c and 2b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002237/18991215/160/0024.&lt;/ref&gt;
Russell Harris quotes ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Blackwell, 1994. Vol. 1, p. 19.):&lt;blockquote&gt;ALIAS, Charles (b France, 184-?; d London, 11 May 1921). The most famous name in British theatrical costumery in the second half of the 19th century.

The son of a French doctor, the young Alias fought alongside his father in the Franco-Prussian war where he is said to have lost the sight in one eye. He visited Britain and the Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, shortly afterwards as a dresser with the French dance troupe, Les Clodoches, and there he met and married Miss Price, the theatre's costumer. Although Alias had no experience in the theatre, he joined his wife in setting up the freelance firm of M et Mme Alias &amp; Co, '''someties''' designing and manufacturing, or more often just making up from the designs of such artists as [Comelli or] Wilhelm or [[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin]], the costumes for an ever-extending series of musical shows.

The Aliases made their mark in the West End when theyprovided the costumes for the original London production of ''La Fille de Madame Angot'' (1873), and thereafter they costumes, either wholly or partly, many of London's most important musical productions including the burlesques at the Gaiety Theatre (''The Bohemian G'yurl, Little Dr Faust, Gulliver, Il Sonnambulo, Pretty Esmeralda'' etc), the Royalty (''Madcap, '''Pluto''''' '''etc'''), and the Strand (''The '''Lying''' Dutchman, L'Africaine, Nemesis, Loo, Antarctic, Champagne, The Baby, Intimidad''), Gilbert's early ''Tospyturveydom'' and ''Princess Toto'', Gilbert and Sullivan premières at the '''OPera''' Comique (''The Pirates of Penzance'') and the Savoy (''Iolanthe''), the vast spectaculars at the Alhambra (''La Poule aux oeufs d'or'' etc) and, most noticeably, the long string of French opéras-bouffes and opéras-comiques which were produced in Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. These included the record-breaking ''Trouillat (La Belle Normande), Le Jour et la nuit (Manola), La Timbale d'argent (The Duke's Daughter), La Marjolaine, Les Prés St Gervais'' and most of the long string of adaptations from the French made by Alias's close friend Henry Farnie, and produced by Alexander Henderson.

Alias maintained a close connection with his homeland. His home at 48 Soho Square became well known as a first stopping place for Frenchmen new to London and a congenial gathering place for theatricals, and he as a useful and friendly intermediary in various theatrical dealings between London and Paris. Hervé, Planquette, Chassaigne, Audran and Lecocq were all guests at Soho Square and the little costumier was said to have been instrumental in the brothers Mansell bringing Hervé and his ''Chilpéric'' (1870) to London, and thus helping set off the craze for opéra-bouffe which dominated the 1870s musical theatre in England. He also encouraged Planquette to work with H B Farnie on an original musical for Britain - the result of which was the enduring ''Rip van Winkle''.

Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major succss with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'', and on into the 1890s by which stage they had become largely costume-makers rather than designers. Alias himself had by this time become one of the 'characters' of the London theatre, always anxiously asking 'What time de répétition générale?' as an opening approached, but always punctually ready with the show's costumes on dress-rehearsal night.

When Mme Alias died, Charles remarried and continued the business with his new wife, Mme Marie Wallet Floret from the Paris Opéra wardrobe, up to his death.&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html|title=King Edward VII at the Devonshire House Ball 1897, by Lafayette|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2024-07-23}} Lafayette Negative Archive http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html.  Quoting ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Vol. 1, Blackwell, 1994, p. 19).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball'''

Mr. Alias made costumes for the following guests at the Duchess of Devonshire’s 1897 fancy-dress ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught|Duke of Connaught]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/George and Mary|Duke of York]]
# Duke of Fife&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Costumes by Named Dressmakers.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/|title=The Devonshire House Ball 1897 photographed by Lafayette|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2024-05-21}} 2011. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/.&lt;/ref&gt;
# The Duke of Devonshire&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Stonor#Julia Caroline Stonor, Marquise of Hautpoul|Julia Stonor, Marquise of Hartpoul]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Gwendolen Bourke]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Mar and Kellie#Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie|Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Tweedmouth#Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth|Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught#Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught|Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Dowager Duchess of Hamilton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Portland|The Duchess of Portland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]]
# Adolf von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Lady St. Oswald&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Earl of Rosebery&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Faustin Bedbeter ===
[[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin Bedbeter]] was a caricaturist and painter who left France after Bismarck's seige of Paris and settled in London, working for the ''London Figaro'' and ''Punch''. He was a costumier beginning at least in 1875. He designed the costumes for a 1909 revival of [[Social Victorians/People/Gilbert|Gilbert]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Sullivan]]'s ''The Pirates of Penzance''.
[[File:Jean-Joseph-Benjamin Constant (1845-1902) - Queen Victoria (1819-1901) - RCIN 403425 - Royal Collection.jpg|alt=Old painting of elderly woman with small crown, sitting on a throne, surrounded by golden light|thumb|Benjamin-Constant's 1899 ''Queen Victoria'']]

=== Benjamin-Constant ===
Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant (1845–1902) was a French society portraitist and painter in the Orientalist school.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Joseph_Benjamin-Constant&amp;oldid=1358565356|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; He also seems to have designed at least 2 costumes, a cloak in 1890 for soprano Nellie Melba and an outfit for [[Social Victorians/People/Churchill|Lady Randolph Churchill]], who went to the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball dressed as Byzantine empress Theodora.

Benjamin-Constant's 1899 portrait of Queen Victoria (right) is a perceptive study of her.

=== Willie Clarkson ===
Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street

Clarkson is also listed among the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Perruquiers|perruquiers]]. Clarkson made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

* Grand Duke Michael of Russia&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4A–8 Col. 2B. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* The Duke of Manchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe Langenburg|Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* Princess Louise&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== M. Comelli ===
Attilio Giuseppe de Comelli von Stuckenfeld (1858-1925).

Attillo Giuseppe Comelli (1858–1925) was an artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.&lt;ref name=&quot;:132&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT207&amp;lpg=PT207&amp;dq=Attilio+Comelli&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=lFB0If7CwV&amp;sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&amp;q=Attilio%20Comelli&amp;f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.&lt;/ref&gt;

Comelli &quot;was appointed house designer to the Royal Opera House in the 1890s&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Attilio Comelli Design Collection.&quot; ''Royal Opera House''  https://www.rohcollections.org.uk/collectionComelli.aspx (retrieved February 2024).&lt;/ref&gt; continuing &quot;to the early 1920s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Drury Lane Design Collection|url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/|date=1915|accessdate=2024-02-13|first=Attilio|last=Comelli}}. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/.&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time, &quot;He was credited as Artist in Chief at the Alhambra, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and the Royal Opera House in London, and also found time to provide costumes for some of the Savoy operas and for Christmas pantomimes in London and Australia.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; After coming &quot;to London in the late 19th century [he] quickly established himself as one of the most prolific designers for the London stage.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

He described his research process for costume design for the July 1902 ''Cassell's Magazine'':&lt;blockquote&gt;When I get the order to prepare designs for a new play … [sic ellipsis] I first spend some weeks in studying, at the British and South Kensington [now the Victoria &amp; Albert] Museum, every available authority on the period, and I frequently send my brother to Paris and Berlin, if there is a chance of getting information there that is not available in London’. (‘The Art of Theatrical Disguise’ by Sidney Dark, ''Cassell’s Magazine'', July 1902, pp.162–7).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;According to the Royal Opera House, he &quot;appears to have had several siblings, including possibly Emilio Andrea Comelli (1862–1929).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;  Also, perhaps another relative, Italian painter Dante Comelli (1880–1958) designed for the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden later.

Comelli's designs for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Comelli designed the costumes that were constructed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mr. Charles Alias|Mr. Alias of Soho Square]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

* Comelli designed the costumes of the attendants of [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] as well as her own costume. Alias did not construct her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|the House of Worth]] did.
* Comelli may have designed the costumes of the entourage of [[Social Victorians/People/Pless#Daisy, Princess Henry of Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]], although Mrs. Mason made Daisy's dress.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dresses Worn at the Duchess of Devonshire's Ball on July 2. Made by Mrs. Mason, 4 New Burlington Street, W.&quot; The ''Queen'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 98 BNA; p. 74 print page), Col. 1a–3c [of 3]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18970710/168/0048?browse=true.&lt;/ref&gt; George Cornwallis-West says his costume was &quot;designed by a famous theatrical designer of the day.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Qtd. in Martin Spies, &quot;&quot;Late Victorian Aristocrats and the Racial Other: The Devonshire House Ball of 1897.&quot; ''Race &amp; Class'' April–June 2016 (57.4): 95–103.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|97}}
[[File:Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth.jpg|thumb|''Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth'', Sargent 1889]]

=== Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship ===
According to Smallhythe Place, the &quot;beetle wing dress&quot; for Ellen Terry's 1888 performance as Lady Macbeth was designed by Alice Comyns Carr and constructed by Ada Nettleship, the &quot;team&quot; that made Ellen Terry's costumes for perhaps 2 decades.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;'Beetle Wing Dress' for Lady Macbeth.&quot; Smallhythe Place, Kent. The National Trusts Collections. Object NT 1118839.1 (1888) https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/1118839.1.&lt;/ref&gt; John Singer Sargent's 1889 portrait of Terry in this dress is at right. (Smallhythe Place, Kent, part of the National Trust, was Terry's home from 1899 to her death. This dress is part of that collection.)

Nettleship crocheted the sleeves and skirt of Terry's costume to resemble &quot;soft chain armour,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; which she overlaid with wing cases from 1,000 beetles.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://womenwhomeantbusiness.com/2021/01/21/ada-nettleship-1856-1932/|title=Ada Nettleship (1856-1932)|last=B|first=Lizzie|date=2021-01-21|website=Women Who Meant Business|language=en|access-date=2025-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Comyn Carr and Nettleship's beetle-wing costume was not the only or even the first dress decorated with the iridescent wings. Ada Nettleship had used beetle wings in &quot;an 1886 dress and an 1887 hat for Constance Lloyd that were oversewn with iridescent green beetle wings&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&amp;oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; — and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin|Mrs Sims]] had used some for a dress in c. 1880.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

==== Personal Details ====
Alice Laura Vansittart Comyns Carr designed costumes, and dressmaker Adaline Cort Nettleship constructed Comyns Carr's designs. They were a &quot;costume team&quot; separate from those who did the costumes for &quot;the rest of the Lyceum company.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; They appear to have maintained individual establishments, with Nettelship often constructing costumes for Terry that were designed by Comyns Carr.

Alice Comyns Carr (1850–1927) was married to J. Comyns Carr, &quot;drama and art critic, author, playwright and director of the Grosvenor Gallery.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&amp;oldid=1286707345|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; She was associated with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress movement]] and was friends with Edward Burne-Jones and John Singer Sargent as well as Lawrence Alma-Tadema, &quot;the writers Robert Browning and Henry James and composers Hubert Parry and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Ada (Adaline) Cort Nettleship (1856 – 19 December 1932&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;) was married to painter John Trivett Nettleship. Some of her &quot;[n]otable clients included the soprano Marie Tempest, and the actors Ellen Terry, Winifred Emery, Sarah Bernhardt, and Mrs Patrick Campbell.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; Like Comyns Carr, Nettleship was an advocate of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress design]], making dresses for Constance Lloyd in that progressive style, including her dress for her wedding to [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]]. Nettleship &quot;in her youth had been a noted ‘art-embroiderer’ in the style of May Morris.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Alice Comyns Carr published her ''Reminiscences'' in 1926, the year before her death. Ada Nettleship was covered by the newspapers from time to time (&quot;''St James Gazette'' 30/5/1883; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 7/7/1884; ''Morning Post'' 16/10/1886; ''The Queen'' 13/8/1887; ‘Ellen Terry’s gowns and the woman who makes them’ by Bessie O’Connor in ''Harpers Bazaar'' 9th Jan 1897; ‘What Actresses Pay For Their Dresses’ in ''New Zealand Herald'' 25/08/1900; ''South Wales Daily News'' 25/1/1902; ''Leeds Mercury'' 13/2/1914.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;)

=== Miss Mary E. Fisher ===
Mme. or Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA3-PR2&amp;dq=Mr.+May,+Garrick-street,+Covent-garden&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;redir_esc=y|title=The Play-pictorial|date=1908|publisher=Greening &amp; Company, Limited|language=en}} P. ADVT ii. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
*Miss Mary E. Fisher is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Charles H. Fox ===
Fox: &quot;perruquier and costumier Charles H. Fox. Since 1878, Fox had been a major supplier of wigs and costumes for private theatricals and fancy dress balls.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;B. J. Simmons &amp; Co.: An Inventory of Its Costume Design Records at the Harry Ransom Center.&quot; ''B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. Costume Design Records''. Harry Ransom Center. The University of Texas. 2023. Retrieved February 2024. https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01440.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Harrison ===
Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* In a chatty column written as a letter to &quot;Dearest Amy,&quot; the article in ''Truth'' on the ball says, &quot;Princess Henry of Pless was another [Queen of Sheba], and her dress was absolutely magnificent. The conception of it was both poetic and artistic, and is due, I believe, to the genius of Mrs. Harrison.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 1b}}
* There are ads for Harrison's.

=== May ===
Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* Mr. May is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Nathan ===
Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; 17, Convent-street, Picadilly

*Messrs. L. and H. Nathan is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Mr. Karl, artist, designed the costumes made by Messrs. L. and H. Nathan of Coventry-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Messrs Nathan made the costumes for the following people:
**[[Social Victorians/People/Harcourt#Elizabeth Harcourt|Elizabeth, Lady Harcourt]]
**[[Social Victorians/People/Rothschild Family#Emma, Lady Rothschildand Nathan Mayer, Lord Rothschild|Emma, Lady Rothschild]]

=== Simmons and Sons ===
Messrs. John Simmons and Sons, Coventry House, Haymarket.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Simmons, 7 and 8, King Street, Covent Garden.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Possibly there are 2 Simmonses?

The Harry Ransom Center has a collection on this firm:&lt;blockquote&gt;The London costumier B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. was founded in 1857 by a Mr. B. J. Simmons and operated by his direct descendants well into the 1930s. Simmons' costumes were known for their correctness of period, sophisticated design, and high quality. ... In their busy Covent Garden workshop, dressmakers turned out immaculately constructed stage apparel, often from renderings by leading costume designers. Successful theater managers repeatedly turned to Simmons for historical costumes, especially Herbert Beerbohm Tree whose magnificent stagings of Shakespeare were often outfitted by Simmons.

While best known as a historical costumier for the London stage, Simmons' output was diverse. The company created costumes for a variety of shows in the West End, the provinces, and overseas, ranging from Victorian pantomime to the &quot;kitchen sink&quot; dramas of the 1960s. ... In addition to making new costumes for professional productions, Simmons operated a thriving rental business which allowed operatic and dramatic societies across England to hire beautifully made garments for amateur productions. Like many theatrical costumiers, Simmons maintained a substantial nontheatrical trade.

Simmons began as a family-run outfit known variously as B. J. Simmons, J. B. Simmons, John Simmons &amp; Son/Sons, Simmons/Symmons/Simmonds Brothers, G. B. Simmons, and B. &amp; G. Simmons. The force majeure seems to have been John Simmons, whose name appears in ''The London Stage'' and in London newspapers until 1922. According to J. P. Wearing, between 1890 and 1899 Simmons provided costumes for at least forty-two theatre productions in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Simmons' contributions to costumes for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Messrs. John Simmons and Son is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* Simmons and Sons made costumes for the following guests at the ball:
** [[Social Victorians/People/Ellesmere#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Francis Egerton, 3rd Earl of Ellesmere]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Duke of Somerset&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Marquis of Winchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Beauchamp&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Carrington&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Essex&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Viscount Esher&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lord Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lady Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
Simmons and Sons is also sometimes listed as having made clothing for other social events:

* For the [[Social Victorians/1892-02-10 Alington Leigh Wedding|very fashionable February 1892 wedding between Henry Sturt, Lord Alington and Evelyn Leigh]] — the &quot;most important social event of last week in the social world&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Alington to Miss Leigh.&quot; ''Gentlewoman'' 20 February 1892, Saturday: 21 [of 46], Cols. 1a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18920220/092/0021. Same print title, p. 237.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|Col. 1a}} — &quot;Messrs. Simmons &amp; Sons, of Coventry House, Haymarket, made the charming little suits for the pages, which were so much admired.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Col. 3a}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Mr. W. Clarkson, 44, Wellington Street (costumes and wigs)&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

=== Unknown Whether Costumier or Dressmaker ===
*Mme. Ellis: &quot;The pretty costumes of Merlin and Vivian worn by [[Social Victorians/People/Walker|Mr and Mrs Willie Walker]] at the Devonshire House Ball, were made by Mme. Ellis, 16, Upper George-street, Bryanston-square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 24 July 1897, Saturday: 54 [of 88], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970724/271/0054.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor Place
* &quot;and many others&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

== Perruquiers ==
Mr. W. Clarkson &quot;supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:&lt;blockquote&gt;At the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, on the 2d inst., the Prince of Wales looked as if he had stepped out of a masterpiece by one of the old painters. His wig, which completed a correct make-up as Knight of Malta, was specially made and fitted by that favoured &quot;Royal Perruquier&quot; Mr Willie Clarkson, who also had the honour of making and fitting the wigs worn by Prince Charles of Denmark, the Duke of York, and the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and of dressing the hair of the Duchess of York and the Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. Mr Clarkson also supplied a number of the costumes, including those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, Princess Louise, and the Duke of Manchester. It would not be safe to say how many crowned heads have literally &quot;passed through the hands&quot; of Mr Clarkson. The art of the perruquier is a very difficult one, requiring historical knowledge, patient research, and great taste. It is most essential to the success of any theatrical performance or of an historical ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;“Foreign Plays and Players.” ''The Era'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 15 [of 28], Col. 3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000053/18970710/032/0015.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Clarkson also provided costumes and wigs for the [[Social Victorians/Royals Amateur Theatricals|amateur theatricals]] that the royals took part in to entertain themselves.

== Jewelers ==
By way of gossip about the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], according to the ''Westminster Gazette'', &quot;One very great lady indeed had been lent, by a jeweller, diamonds worth about £13,000.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 2c}}

=== The Parisian Diamond Company ===

* 43, Burlington Arcade
* 85, New Bond street
* 143, Regent-street

After naming costumiers for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' specifically mentions the Parisian Company for its jewelry and Mr. Norman of Bond Street for the shoes he made:&lt;blockquote&gt;Among other firms [than the costumiers] who lent their aid to make the great ball a huge success was the Parisian Company, whose sparkling gems and jewels, and whose ropes of pearls and precious stones, enhanced the charms of many a fair dame in her dainty old-world costume, and the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, who designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Lady's Pictorial'' also mentions the Parisian Diamond Company in the context of the Devonshire House ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball promises to be an almost historic function, where all that is loveliest in the way of women, gowns, and jewels will be brought together to dazzle the eyes of all beholders. And from what a little bird has whispered to me I am convinced that one of the sensations of the night will be provided by the exquisite and wonderful pieces of jewellery which are being executed for the occasion by that enterprising Parisian Diamond Co., to whose inventive genius there is absolutely no end. They have excelled themselves in the unique and daring originality of the designs — in fact they have taken full advantage of a very special opportunity for the display of their perfect taste and workmanship.

If you are not going to the Duchess’s ball, you will most certainly be present at one or other of the festivities of the Jubilee season, and one or other of these things of beauty and of diamonds, which are portrayed for you on page 931, will be in consequence a necessary addition to your jewel-case. I am quite sure that if you put the case properly before an indulgent husband or father he will see the full force of the argument.

What could possibly be lovelier than that spray of wild roses and ferns, caught together with a true-lover's knot, while trails of ribbon cross the corsage and fasten high up on the right shoulder with a quaint lizard? It is a triumph of design and workmanship — my congratulations to the Company who produced it and the lucky woman who is its ultimate possessor.

Failing the corsage ornament, that comb, or dagger, or aigrette, where the famous Orient pearls are introduced, would, I am sure, be acceptable — go and see them at the Company’s new establishment at 143, Regent-street, where the beauty of the jewels is enhanced by the artistic loveliness of the surroundings, with which, by the way, I have already made you acquainted. The Company’s other addresses are 43, Burlington Arcade, and 85, New Bond street.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Jewellery Wonders by the Parisian Diamond Co.&quot; London Fashions. ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 63 [of 92], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/104/0063. Same print title, p. 945.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Shoemakers ==
According to the ''Gentlewoman'', &quot;the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, ... designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &amp;c., &amp;c.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}

== People Who Made Costumes for the Ball ==
The ''Queen'' often mentions the dressmaker or costumier in its reports on the costumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] as well as in general.

The ''Gentlewoman'' covered this topic explicitly in its report on the ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;Very great credit is due to the taste and artistic powers of the designers of these dresses, and particular mention must be made of M. Comelli, of Covent Garden Theatre, whose facile pen designed most of the superb toilettes so ably carried out by Messrs. Alias, of Soho-square. Other theatrical costumiers who brought all their special talents to bear on the historical and fancy costumes required for this function were Messrs. Nathan (artist, Mr. Karl), of Coventry-street; Messrs. John Simmons &amp; Sons, Haymarket; Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street; Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street; Simmons, 7 and 8, King-street; Mr. Clarkson, 44, Wellington-street; Mme. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street; and many others. A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses. Amongst these we chronicle M. Mason, New Burlington-street; M. Machinka, Conduit-street; Paquin, of Dover-street; Jays, Ltd., Regent-street; Messrs. Durrant, 116, Bond-street (who made Lady Londonderry's magnificent gown), and numerous others.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The London ''Evening Standard'' cites the sources of its information about the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;We are indebted for some of the particulars of the dresses to Mr. Charles Alias, Soho-square; Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; Messrs. John Simmons and Son, Coventry House, Haymarket; Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden; Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26 Bedford-street, Covent-garden; and the ''Lady'' newspaper.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Morning Post'' also addressed the costumiers. It named Mr. Alias in association with the royals, as well as mentioning several other costumiers by name:&lt;blockquote&gt;The costumes worn by the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, and the Duchess of Connaught, as well as many others were supplied by Mr. Alias, of Soho-square. Those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, the Duke of Manchester, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and others were made by Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street, who also supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family. Messrs. Simmons and Sons, of the Haymarket, made a large number of costumes, including those of the Duke of Somerset, the Marquis of Winchester, Earls Beauchamp, Carrington, Ellesmere, and Essex. Nathan, of Coventry-street, and Simmons, of King-street, Covent-garden; Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor-place, and Mrs. Mason, of New Burlington-street, also made some of the principal costumes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Lady's Pictorial''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s &quot;Our Irish Letter&quot; of 26 June 1897 says,&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball on July 2nd is arousing the very greatest interest in all circles. We hear a large number of the very beautiful costumes which will be worn at this dance are being made by Simmons's, the celebrated historical costumiers, 7 and 8, King-street, Covent Garden.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Our Irish Letter.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 76 [of 92], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/139/0076. Print title same, p. 952.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;On 3 July 1897, the day after the ball, the ''Belfast News-letter'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;For weeks past all the leading London dressmakers and costumiers had been hard at work executing the orders for this great ball. At Alias Nathan's, Clarkson's, Auguste's, and Simmons' all hands set to with a will, and it is gratifying to know that the dresses entrusted to them more than held their own with those sent over from Paris.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9c [of 9]–6, Col. 1a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to the ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'', citing the ''Daily Mail'',
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear, while Worth also is making a great many costumes; but the greatest number are being made in England. The Duchess of Portland, the Duchess of Hamilton, Lady Mar and Kellie, and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]] are all going to the costumier in Soho-square, and Alias has also been summoned to Marlborough House for a consultation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Mr. Caryl Craven, who is so clever in such matters, is helping the Duchess of Leeds with her dress; in fact, everyone seems pressed into the service, and the result will be one of the most brilliant sights that ever was seen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; 
== Notes and Questions ==

# Which costumier was this? &quot;A well-known West End dressmaker booked for the Duchess of Devonshire's fancy dress ball orders representing £27000.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Letter.&quot; ''Western Daily Press'' 15 July 1897, Thursday: 8 [of 8], Col. 7c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000264/18970715/146/0008.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== References ==
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      <text bytes="63760" sha1="gvukbplqthte2l8q0sr781ciixhg2qb" xml:space="preserve">== Dressmakers, Modistes, Costumiers, Perruquiers and Jewelers ==

=== Not to Mention Seamstresses, Tailors, Lace-makers, Milliners, and Lady's Maids ===
Dominated as the social world was by women, fashion was an important part of the reportage on social events, with some reporters demonstrating knowledge of fabrics, cuts, laces, and so on. The Victorians had specialized terms for people who designed and made clothing, especially very fashionable clothes or haut couture, and specialized careers for those people who assisted women to acquire, manage and wear that clothing. Because of the popularity of fancy-dress or costume parties, some of the people assisting them were costumiers from the world of theatre and opera. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology|terminology]] and examples that follow are generally focused on the terms used by newspapers at the end of the 19th century in London.

Some of those who helped construct the costumes and wigs follow, and most of those mentioned below helped supply designs, costumes, wigs, jewelry and so on. Most wealthy women purchased their corsets from corsetieres (or corsetiers).

== Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes ==
Discussing the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' says, &quot;A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Modistes, couturiers (and couturieres) and fashion houses generally provided haut couture fashion to wealthy women who liked those kinds of styles, making their dresses and other accessories.

=== Bettans ===
Mary Farnan Bettans

84 Jermyn Street, London

Mary Bettans, Queen Victoria's &quot;official royal dressmaker&quot; early in her reign, maker of Victoria's wedding dress. In 1841, she had &quot;a 'well conducted establishment' with journeywomen, in-door apprentices and improvers.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-27|title=Mary Bettans|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Bettans&amp;oldid=1324345065|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1846 she was listed as &quot;Court Dress and Dress Maker,&quot; and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Johnston|Elizabeth Johnston]] was &quot;Dress Maker Extraordinary.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;

=== Creed, House of ===
House of Creed, in the 19th century British tailors and habit maker established in Paris like the House of Worth. Their clients included Queen Victoria, Empress Eugènie, and Count d'Orsay; Eugènie issued Creed &amp; Cumberland a Royal Warrant.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-22|title=Creed (perfume house)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Creed_(perfume_house)&amp;oldid=1307198553|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later became a perfumier.

=== Doucet ===
A gossipy article in ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' (citing the ''Daily Mail'') says, &quot;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;“Derbyshire Sayings and Doings.” ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'' 12 June 1897, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 2A. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000228/18970612/018/0005.&lt;/ref&gt; although she went as Cleopatra, according to the commemorative album, and not Zenobia (only the Duchess of Devonshire went as Zenobia).

=== Mme Durrant ===

Mme Durrant's concern, at the end of the 19th century, at least, was at 116 &amp; 117 New Bond-street, London W. An ad in ''The Queen'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;Court Dressmaker and Milliner. The Latest Paris Models in Morning, Afternoon, Tailor, and Evening Gowns, Millinery, and Mantles.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Madame Durrant, Court Dressmaker and Milliner.&quot; ''The Queen'' 15 April 1899, Saturday: 11 [of 88], Cols. 2–3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18990415/082/0011.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mme Durrant made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Londonderry#Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry|Theresa, Marchioness of Londonderry]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Lines for the Ladies.&quot; ''Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough'' Thursday 16 June 1898: 4 [of 4], Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000159/18980616/060/0004.&lt;/ref&gt; The dress and fabrics for the Marchioness of Londonderry as well as her quadrille, were made in Britain or Ireland.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;&quot;This Morning’s News.&quot; London ''Daily News'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 7 [of 12], Col. 3b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970706/038/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mme Durrant made at least a couple of dresses for Queen Mary (early 20th century).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://tr.pinterest.com/pin/278730664423122186/|title=1900 - 1919 Clothing panosundaki Pin|website=Pinterest|language=en|access-date=2023-03-08}} https://pin.it/2GUiBm7 and https://pin.it/2GUiBm7.&lt;/ref&gt; Also, perhaps early 20th-c, Durrant had an address on Dover Street.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html|title=queerplaces - Sir Edwin Hardy Amies|website=www.elisarolle.com|access-date=2023-03-08}} http://www.elisarolle.com/queerplaces/ch-d-e/Edwin%20Hardy%20Amies.html.&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Queen'' also has ads for a &quot;Mr. Durrrant's Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker&quot; in Edinburgh and Glasgow in 1892.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Durrant Ladies' Taylor and Habit Maker.&quot; [advertisement] ''The Queen'' 06 February 1892, Saturday: 5 [of 81], Cols. 2–3c [of 4]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18920206/043/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Johnston ===
Elizabeth Johnston

Elizabeth Johnston was listed as &quot;Dress Maker Extraordinary&quot; in 1846.&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt;

=== Mrs. Mason ===
M. or Mrs. Mason, of 4, New Burlington Street, W.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* &quot;Dress and Fashion&quot; answer by Adern Holt in the ''Queen'' to queries posed by &quot;Correspondents&quot;: &quot;F&lt;small&gt;ANCY&lt;/small&gt; D&lt;small&gt;RESS&lt;/small&gt;. — For the beautiful ball such as you describe you cannot do better than go to Mrs Mason, New Burlington-street, for the costume about which you inquire. It needs very careful making and the most artistic designs, and these you would be sure to obtain there, for the dresses she made for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball were quite artistic masterpieces.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 17 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 97], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970717/231/0049.&lt;/ref&gt;
Mrs. Mason made costumes for the following guests at the ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Ashburton#Mabel, Lady Ashburton|Mabel, Lady Ashburton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/de Trafford#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Violet, Lady de Trafford]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Sophie Scott|Lady Sophie Scott]]
# Lady Lurgan&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Leeds#Katherine, Duchess of Leeds|Katherine, Duchess of Leeds]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Sutherland#Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland|Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Meysey-Thompson#Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson|Lady Ethel Meysey Thompson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Muriel Wilson]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Edmonstone#Lady Ida Edmonstone|Lady Ida Edmonstone]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Goelet#Costumes at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Mary Goelet]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Cavendish#Lady Edward Cavendish|Lady Edward Cavendish]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Sarah Spencer-Churchill Wilson#Lady Sarah Wilson|Lady Sarah Wilson]]
#[[Social Victorians/People/Derby#Constance Villiers Stanley, Countess of Derby|Countess of Derby]]
#Mrs [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Gwendolen Bourke]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
#Duchess of Roxburghe&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Morin-Blossier ===
The French &quot;tailoring workshop&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://fashion.mam-e.it/morin-blossier/|title=Morin-Blossier -|date=2016-02-05|language=it-IT|access-date=2022-04-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; of Morin-Blossier &quot;possibly&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; made the dress worn to  the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball]] by

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* [[Social Victorians/People/Prince Charles of Denmark|Princess Maud of Wales]] (Princess Charles of Denmark)&lt;ref name=&quot;:43&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Prince and Princess Carl of Denmark, later King Haakon VII (1872-1957) and Queen Maud of Norway (1869-1938),  and Princess Victoria of Wales (1868-1935), as a 16th century Danish courtier, and Ladies-in-Waiting at to Marguerite de Valois.&quot; &quot;List of Sitters.&quot; ''In Calm Prose''. 2011 http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/denmark.html.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Duchess of York&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Princess Victoria&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
Alexandra seems to have preferred Morin-Blossier to the House of Worth.

=== Redfern ===
Redfern &amp; Sons

John Redfern

Cowes, Isle of Wight, eventually with extensions in Paris, London, Edinburgh and New York.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-08-24|title=Redfern (couture)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Redfern_(couture)&amp;oldid=1307596205|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Active 1855–1932, specialized in tailored dresses and suits, especially for women who went yachting, rode horses or played tennis — or who just liked the look of the tailored outfit.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt; The Paris house was a couturier by the early 1890s.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

==== Clients ====

* Lillie Langtry, 1879&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Queen Victoria, Dressmaker by Royal Appointment, 1888&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* Alexandra, Princess of Wales&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;

=== Messrs Russell and Allen ===
Old Bond-street., W.

Made presentation dresses for 8 of the following in 1913&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Their Majesties' Court.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 17 May 1913, Saturday: 35 [of 64], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/19130517/296/0035. Same print title, p. 787.&lt;/ref&gt;:

# Mrs. A. C. Hardy, of Montreal
# Mrs. Thorburn
# Mrs. Ralph Berners
# Miss Spencer Warwick
# [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Miss [Daphne] Bourke]]
# Mrs. Henry Barran
# Miss D. Hickman
# Hon. Irene Molesworth
# The Hon. Edith Winn
# The Hon. Hilaria St. Aubyn
# The Hon. Mary Charteris
# Miss Grace Holley

=== Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin ===
Mrs Mary Sims, Dawson Street, Dublin

Mrs Sims made a dress decorated with beetle wings in c. 1880; this dress still exists and, according to Elaine Hewitt, is in the NMI collections.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, Naional Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks. Saturday 16th February 2013. https://www.academia.edu/2455567/The_material_culture_of_infancy_and_early_childhood_in_Ireland_c_1680_1830?auto=download.&lt;/ref&gt; Hewitt's precis for an exhibit called ''Objects in Focus: New Research Seminar, National Museum of Ireland, Decoraive Arts and History, Collins Barracks'' says, &quot;Mary Sims was a court dressmaker by Royal appointment, who established herself from 1863 as the most prominent dressmaker in Dublin.&quot;

Mrs Sims made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

* [[Social Victorians/People/Cadogan#Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan|Lady Beatrix, Countess Cadogan]]

Other people Mrs Sims made clothes for:

* Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 1885: Kate Strasdin offers an example of Alexandra's strategic use of clothing: a gown Alexandra wore to a Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace was, according to the ''Times'', &quot;a dress of rich yellow satin and silver brocade, draped with silver lace, corsage to correspond, made by Mrs Sims of Dublin.&quot;{{rp|1885, p. 11}} What is strategic is the release of Mrs Sims's name, according to Strasdin, since &quot;[t]he communication of this detail can only have come from the royal household itself, demonstrating the control that Alexandra exerted over details released to the press relating to her appearance.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Strasdin, Kate, &quot;Reporting Royal Dress: Queen Alexandra and Royal Image Making.&quot; Falmouth University Research Repository. http://repository.falmouth.ac.uk.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Ishbel, Marchioness Aberdeen, 1886: &quot;Ishbel, Lady Aberdeen (1857–1939), [wore a &quot;costume of an Irish lady in the thirteenth century&quot;] in 1886 while presiding over a garden party at the Vice Regal Lodge in the Phoenix Park in Dublin, an event to which the 2,000 invited guests were expected to wear clothes of Irish manufacture.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Alex Ward, &quot;Dress and National Identity: Women’s Clothing and the Celtic Revival,&quot; ''Costume'', 48:2, 2014, 193-212, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/0590887614Z.00000000050.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|199}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Madame Fréderic: made the costume for Princess Mary of Teck&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Jays, Ltd., Regent-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* M. Machinka, Conduit-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Maison Lucille: made Mrs. James's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Mrs. Nettleship: made the Countess of Yarborough's costume&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* Paquin, of Dover-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}: made the dress of Madame von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Picador&quot; designed and drew illustrations of dresses for the ''Lady's Pictorial''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fashions for Fêtes, Specially Designed by 'Picador.'&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 41 [of 92], full page. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0005980/18970710/432/0041. Print title same, p. 57.&lt;/ref&gt; They drew some of the costumes for the ''Lady's Pictorial''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s big article on the Duchess of Devonshire's ball (on 10 July 1897).

=== Worth, of Paris ===
Located in Paris, Maison Worth or the House of Worth — named for owner and designer Englishman Charles Frederick Worth — was a very influential couturier in the 2nd half of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th centuries. The dresses Worth designed were typically handmade of very fine materials.&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s designs are notable for his use of lavish fabrics and trimmings, his incorporation of elements of historic dress, and his attention to fit. While the designer still created one-of-a-kind pieces for his most important clients, he is especially known for preparing a variety of designs that were shown on live models at the House of Worth. Clients made their selections and had garments tailor-made in Worth’s workshop.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm|title=Charles Frederick Worth (1825–1895) and the House of Worth {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|last=Krick|first=Authors: Jessa|website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|language=en|access-date=2024-07-12}} https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrth/hd_wrth.htm.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;After having won design prizes at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, which was housed at the Crystal Palace, and the 1854 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Worth opened his own design house in Paris in 1858.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; In 1869,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-11-18|title=Eugénie de Montijo|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A9nie_de_Montijo&amp;oldid=1322973534|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; the Empress Eugénie appointed him designer to the court of France&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2024-07-03|title=House of Worth|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=House_of_Worth&amp;oldid=1232307431|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Worth.&lt;/ref&gt;:&lt;blockquote&gt;Worth’s rise as a designer coincided with the establishment of the Second Empire in France. The restoration of a royal house in 1852, with Napoleon III (1808–1873) as the new emperor, once again made Paris an imperial capital and the setting for numerous state occasions. Napoleon III implemented a grand vision for both Paris and France, initiating changes and modernization that revitalized the French economy and made Paris into a showpiece of Europe. The demand for luxury goods, including textiles and fashionable dress, reached levels that had not been seen since before the French Revolution (1789–99). When Napoleon III married Empress Eugénie (1826–1920), her tastes set the style at court .... The empress’ patronage ensured Worth’s success as a popular dressmaker from the 1860s onward.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Other patrons included women from Empress Eugénie's court, &quot;Elizabeth of Austria, Margherita of Italy, Mme. de Castiglione, Mme. de Pourtales, and every reigning star in the theatrical and operatic world.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[Worth, House of.] {{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfFeminineFashion|title=A History Of Feminine Fashion (1800s to 1920s)}} Before 1927. [Likely commissioned by Worth. Link is to Archive.org; info from Wikimedia Commons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worth_Biarritz_salon.jpg.]&lt;/ref&gt; (6) By the end of the 19th century, wealthy women from the US, the UK and around Europe were making their way to Maison Worth in Paris.

Besides his contributions to in developments in models of promotion and business for the couture fashion house, Worth's real influence took the form of a particular look, which for the end of the century we call the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Traditional Style|traditional Victorian style]]. After Charles Worth's death in 1895, his sons Gaston-Lucien and Jean-Philippe &quot;succeeded in maintaining his high standards,&quot; and Jean-Philippe especially &quot;follow[ed] his father’s aesthetic, with his use of dramatic fabrics and lavish trimmings.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; While we associate a particular look with it, the House of Worth designed its clothing for its customers, whose relationship with the traditional style could be nuanced and fluctuating. For example, Lillie Langtry sometimes purchased her gowns at Maison Worth, even at the time she was known not to be corseted, so the style of the House of Worth is also less static and extreme than the gowns of some of its customers might suggest.

==== Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball ====
The House of Worth made costumes for the following guests at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]], although the costume was designed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#M. Comelli|Attilio Comelli]].
# Lady Randolph Churchill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Mrs. Arthur Paget&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Daisy, Countess of Warwick&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

== Costumiers for Theatres and Operas ==
At the end of the 19th century, the profession of costumier depended on a knowledge of the history of clothing, although the costumiers themselves  generally did not feel constrained by notions of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Historical Accuracy|historical accuracy]] for the productions they designed for.

['''until the industrial revolution women made fabrics and clothing, plus ppl wore clothing every day, so clothing was not considered important. Planché; actual history of clothing vs just looking at portraits. History of clothing: foundation garments, items specific to a particular time like a codpiece, fabrics changed and evolved over time, plus a greater variety of fabrics; fabric and empires. The idea of a coherent production design with costumes designed for the particular actor in that production may have been changing about this time; before this actors provided their own costumes; Ellen Terry was probably part of this, Gilbert and Sullivan.''']

Not present at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]] but certainly very involved in it were the people who made or provided the clothing, hats, wigs, jewelry, and other accessories. Besides people who made the costumes (including costumiers, dressmakers, and modistes) and wigs (perruquiers), embroiderers, jewelers and shoemakers are occasionally mentioned although almost never named in the newspaper accounts.

Not all of these may have been costumiers, at least professional ones; some of the less well known might have been [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Fashion Houses, Couturiers and Modistes|clothiers]] instead.

=== Mr. Charles Alias ===
Mr. Charles Alias, 36 Soho Square

==== Personal Details ====

* Charles Georges Alias (1852 – 11 May 1921&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;Principal Probate Registry. ''Calendar of the Grants of Probate and Letters of Administration made in the Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England''. London, England © Crown copyright. Ancestry.com. ''England &amp; Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858-1995'' [database on-line]. Lehi, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010.&lt;/ref&gt;)
* Sarah Alias ()

Notes

# Will probated on 6 October 1921, effects of £6376 18s. 5d. to Marie Alias, widow.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;
# 1881 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 114 St Martins Lane in St Martin in the Fields; his occupation is listed as Costumier (Milliner); 2 boarders and a servant were living with them: Robert Soutar (age 51, comedian/actor), Harriet Morgan (age 28, comedian/actor) and the general domestic servant Lucy Ann Hewitt (age 23). Other servants' names follow, but apparently they were not living in 114 St Martins Lane.&lt;ref&gt;''Census Returns of England and Wales, 1881''. Kew, Surrey, England: The National Archives of the UK (TNA): Public Record Office (PRO), 1881. Class: ''RG11''; Piece: ''328''; Folio: ''42''; Page: ''27''; GSU roll: ''1341071''. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. ''1881 England Census'' [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;
# 1891 Census: Charles Alias was born in France; they lived at 36 Soho Square; his occupation is listed as Theatrical Costumier;

==== Costumier ====
[[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Comelli|M. Comelli]], designer and costumier at Covent Garden, designed the costumes that were constructed by Mr. Alias of Soho Square.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Several newspapers specifically name Mr. Alias as one of their sources of information about the costumes for the Duchess of Devonshire's ball: The London ''Echo''&lt;ref&gt;“A Jubilee Ball. Brilliant Scene at Devonshire House. Some of the Costumes Worn.” The London ''Echo'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Cols. 6a – 7a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0004596/18970703/027/0002.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 2, Col. 6a}}; the London ''Evening Standard'' &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* The column &quot;Girls' Gossip&quot; names M. Alias in its discussion of the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;Herr von André was a splendid Benvenuto Cellini in brown and crimson, a perfect triumph of M. Alias's art. In fact, it was owing to the studious research and historical accuracy displayed by this clever costumier that so many of the dresses were so realistically pictorial. Alias dressed the Prince of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, Duke of York, Prince Christian, Lord Lathom, and about a hundred other great ones of our island for the occasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;“Girls’ Gossip.” ''Truth'' 8 July 1897, Thursday: 41 [of 70], Col. 1b – 42, Col. 2c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002961/18970708/089/0041.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 2c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;
*&quot;Charles Alias was French and very small. He had started as a traveller in artificial flowers and married a little dressmaker in Long Acre. They started making theatrical costumes and later moved to 36 Soho Square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI|title=As You Were: Reminiscences|last=Byng|first=Douglas|date=1970|publisher=Duckworth|isbn=978-0-7156-0543-1|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJ8fAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgMEAI.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In its Appendix of Royal Warrant Holders, the 1902 ''Debrett's'' also says &quot;Charles Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square. W.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false|title=Debrett's Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage: Comprising Information Concerning All Persons Bearing Hereditary Or Courtesy Titles, Knights, and Companions of All the Various Orders, and the Collateral Branches of All Peers and Baronets|date=1902|publisher=Dean &amp; Son, Limited|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=cLc7AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PP7&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgGEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=Alias%20Soho%20dressmaker%20costumier&amp;f=false.&lt;/ref&gt; (n.p.; end of book)
* The ''Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'', Vol. 1, says, &quot;Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major success with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'' [a comic opera by Alfred Cellier, libretto by B. C. Stephenson, &quot;transferred&quot; from the Gaiety to the Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1886 and then to the Lyric Theatre in 1888, the most successful of the productions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-03-25|title=Dorothy (opera)|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dorothy_(opera)&amp;oldid=1146605626|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_(opera).&lt;/ref&gt;], and on into the 1890s by which ...&quot;; &quot;The Aliases made their mark in the West End when they provided the costumes for the original London production of La Fille de ...&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI|title=The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre|last=G?nzl|first=Kurt|date=1994|publisher=Schirmer Books|isbn=978-0-02-871445-5|language=en}} https://books.google.com/books?id=2myfAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;dq=Alias+Soho+dressmaker+costumier&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjpr_zTzc3-AhXwlIkEHZ8wDHYQ6AF6BAgEEAI.&lt;/ref&gt; (taking from snippets)
* BNA search: Alias, Costumier, 36, Soho Square, London: 1898 shows a lot of advertisements.
* In 1892 Mr. C. Alias, 36, Soho Square, W., was a director of the 13th Annual Dramatic Ball, at the Freemasons' Tavern.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/account/register?countrykey=0&amp;showgiftvoucherclaimingoptions=false&amp;gift=false&amp;nextpage=%2faccount%2flogin%3freturnurl%3d%252fviewer%252fbl%252f0001682%252f18920213%252f011%252f0004&amp;rememberme=false&amp;cookietracking=false&amp;partnershipkey=0&amp;newsletter=false&amp;offers=false&amp;registerreason=none&amp;showsubscriptionoptions=false&amp;showcouponmessaging=false&amp;showfreetrialmessaging=false&amp;showregisteroptions=false&amp;showloginoptions=false&amp;showcaptchaerrormessage=false&amp;isonlyupgradeable=false|title=Register {{!}} British Newspaper Archive|website=www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk|access-date=2023-04-28}} https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001682/18920213/011/0004.&lt;/ref&gt;
* In a gushing piece written for the 15 December 1899 ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'', &quot;The Bohemian Girl&quot; says that Alias executed Comelli designs for a Christmas pantomime ''Triumph of Music''. She goes on to talk about Willie Clarkson's work for another pantomime and a visit by Mrs. Langtry.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Bohemian Girl, The.&quot; &quot;Preparing for the Pantomime.&quot; ''Music Hall and Theatre Review'' 15 December 1899, Friday: 24 [of 60], Cols. 1b–c and 2b–c [of 2]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002237/18991215/160/0024.&lt;/ref&gt;
Russell Harris quotes ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Blackwell, 1994. Vol. 1, p. 19.):&lt;blockquote&gt;ALIAS, Charles (b France, 184-?; d London, 11 May 1921). The most famous name in British theatrical costumery in the second half of the 19th century.

The son of a French doctor, the young Alias fought alongside his father in the Franco-Prussian war where he is said to have lost the sight in one eye. He visited Britain and the Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, shortly afterwards as a dresser with the French dance troupe, Les Clodoches, and there he met and married Miss Price, the theatre's costumer. Although Alias had no experience in the theatre, he joined his wife in setting up the freelance firm of M et Mme Alias &amp; Co, '''someties''' designing and manufacturing, or more often just making up from the designs of such artists as [Comelli or] Wilhelm or [[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin]], the costumes for an ever-extending series of musical shows.

The Aliases made their mark in the West End when theyprovided the costumes for the original London production of ''La Fille de Madame Angot'' (1873), and thereafter they costumes, either wholly or partly, many of London's most important musical productions including the burlesques at the Gaiety Theatre (''The Bohemian G'yurl, Little Dr Faust, Gulliver, Il Sonnambulo, Pretty Esmeralda'' etc), the Royalty (''Madcap, '''Pluto''''' '''etc'''), and the Strand (''The '''Lying''' Dutchman, L'Africaine, Nemesis, Loo, Antarctic, Champagne, The Baby, Intimidad''), Gilbert's early ''Tospyturveydom'' and ''Princess Toto'', Gilbert and Sullivan premières at the '''OPera''' Comique (''The Pirates of Penzance'') and the Savoy (''Iolanthe''), the vast spectaculars at the Alhambra (''La Poule aux oeufs d'or'' etc) and, most noticeably, the long string of French opéras-bouffes and opéras-comiques which were produced in Britain in the 1870s and 1880s. These included the record-breaking ''Trouillat (La Belle Normande), Le Jour et la nuit (Manola), La Timbale d'argent (The Duke's Daughter), La Marjolaine, Les Prés St Gervais'' and most of the long string of adaptations from the French made by Alias's close friend Henry Farnie, and produced by Alexander Henderson.

Alias maintained a close connection with his homeland. His home at 48 Soho Square became well known as a first stopping place for Frenchmen new to London and a congenial gathering place for theatricals, and he as a useful and friendly intermediary in various theatrical dealings between London and Paris. Hervé, Planquette, Chassaigne, Audran and Lecocq were all guests at Soho Square and the little costumier was said to have been instrumental in the brothers Mansell bringing Hervé and his ''Chilpéric'' (1870) to London, and thus helping set off the craze for opéra-bouffe which dominated the 1870s musical theatre in England. He also encouraged Planquette to work with H B Farnie on an original musical for Britain - the result of which was the enduring ''Rip van Winkle''.

Alias &amp; Co prospered in the 1880s, having a major succss with their new costumes for the transferred version of the amazing ''Dorothy'', and on into the 1890s by which stage they had become largely costume-makers rather than designers. Alias himself had by this time become one of the 'characters' of the London theatre, always anxiously asking 'What time de répétition générale?' as an opening approached, but always punctually ready with the show's costumes on dress-rehearsal night.

When Mme Alias died, Charles remarried and continued the business with his new wife, Mme Marie Wallet Floret from the Paris Opéra wardrobe, up to his death.&lt;ref&gt;Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html|title=King Edward VII at the Devonshire House Ball 1897, by Lafayette|website=lafayette.org.uk|access-date=2024-07-23}} Lafayette Negative Archive http://lafayette.org.uk/edw1335.html.  Quoting ''The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre'' (Vol. 1, Blackwell, 1994, p. 19).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;'''Costumes for the Fancy-dress Ball'''

Mr. Alias made costumes for the following guests at the Duchess of Devonshire’s 1897 fancy-dress ball:

# [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales|Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught|Duke of Connaught]]
# The [[Social Victorians/People/George and Mary|Duke of York]]
# Duke of Fife&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;Harris, Russell. &quot;Costumes by Named Dressmakers.&quot; {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/|title=The Devonshire House Ball 1897 photographed by Lafayette|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2024-05-21}} 2011. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/.&lt;/ref&gt;
# The Duke of Devonshire&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# [[Social Victorians/People/Stonor#Julia Caroline Stonor, Marquise of Hautpoul|Julia Stonor, Marquise of Hartpoul]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Bourke|Hon. Mrs. Gwendolen Bourke]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Mar and Kellie#Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie|Violet, Countess of Mar and Kellie]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Tweedmouth#Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth|Fanny, Baroness Tweedmouth]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Connaught#Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught|Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Douglas-Hamilton Duke of Hamilton|Mary, Dowager Duchess of Hamilton]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Portland|The Duchess of Portland]]
# [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]]
# Adolf von André&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Lady St. Oswald&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
# Earl of Rosebery&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

=== Faustin Bedbeter ===
[[Social Victorians/People/Faustin Betbeder|Faustin Bedbeter]] was a caricaturist and painter who left France after Bismarck's seige of Paris and settled in London, working for the ''London Figaro'' and ''Punch''. He was a costumier beginning at least in 1875. He designed the costumes for a 1909 revival of [[Social Victorians/People/Gilbert|Gilbert]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Sullivan]]'s ''The Pirates of Penzance''.
[[File:Jean-Joseph-Benjamin Constant (1845-1902) - Queen Victoria (1819-1901) - RCIN 403425 - Royal Collection.jpg|alt=Old painting of elderly woman with small crown, sitting on a throne, surrounded by golden light|thumb|Benjamin-Constant's 1899 ''Queen Victoria'']]

=== Benjamin-Constant ===
Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant (1845–1902) was a French society portraitist and painter in the Orientalist school.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Joseph_Benjamin-Constant&amp;oldid=1358565356|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; He also seems to have designed at least 2 costumes, a cloak in 1890 for soprano Nellie Melba and an outfit for [[Social Victorians/People/Churchill|Lady Randolph Churchill]], who went to the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball dressed as Byzantine empress Theodora.

Benjamin-Constant's 1899 portrait of Queen Victoria (right) is a perceptive study of her.

For the Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball, Benjamin-Constant designed the costume for Lady Randolph's Theodora; Worth of Paris did the construction.

=== Willie Clarkson ===
Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street

Clarkson is also listed among the [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Perruquiers|perruquiers]]. Clarkson made the costumes for the following guests at the ball:

* Grand Duke Michael of Russia&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;&quot;Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House.&quot; ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4A–8 Col. 2B. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* The Duke of Manchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* [[Social Victorians/People/Gleichen#Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe Langenburg|Laura, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
* Princess Louise&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== M. Comelli ===
Attilio Giuseppe de Comelli von Stuckenfeld (1858-1925).

Attillo Giuseppe Comelli (1858–1925) was an artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.&lt;ref name=&quot;:132&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT207&amp;lpg=PT207&amp;dq=Attilio+Comelli&amp;source=bl&amp;ots=lFB0If7CwV&amp;sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&amp;q=Attilio%20Comelli&amp;f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.&lt;/ref&gt;

Comelli &quot;was appointed house designer to the Royal Opera House in the 1890s&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;&quot;Attilio Comelli Design Collection.&quot; ''Royal Opera House''  https://www.rohcollections.org.uk/collectionComelli.aspx (retrieved February 2024).&lt;/ref&gt; continuing &quot;to the early 1920s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Drury Lane Design Collection|url=https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/|date=1915|accessdate=2024-02-13|first=Attilio|last=Comelli}}. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1172507/drury-lane-design-collection-costume-design-comelli-attilio/.&lt;/ref&gt; At the same time, &quot;He was credited as Artist in Chief at the Alhambra, Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and the Royal Opera House in London, and also found time to provide costumes for some of the Savoy operas and for Christmas pantomimes in London and Australia.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; After coming &quot;to London in the late 19th century [he] quickly established himself as one of the most prolific designers for the London stage.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

He described his research process for costume design for the July 1902 ''Cassell's Magazine'':&lt;blockquote&gt;When I get the order to prepare designs for a new play … [sic ellipsis] I first spend some weeks in studying, at the British and South Kensington [now the Victoria &amp; Albert] Museum, every available authority on the period, and I frequently send my brother to Paris and Berlin, if there is a chance of getting information there that is not available in London’. (‘The Art of Theatrical Disguise’ by Sidney Dark, ''Cassell’s Magazine'', July 1902, pp.162–7).&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;According to the Royal Opera House, he &quot;appears to have had several siblings, including possibly Emilio Andrea Comelli (1862–1929).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;  Also, perhaps another relative, Italian painter Dante Comelli (1880–1958) designed for the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden later.

Comelli's designs for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Comelli designed the costumes that were constructed by [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mr. Charles Alias|Mr. Alias of Soho Square]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

* Comelli designed the costumes of the attendants of [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire]] as well as her own costume. Alias did not construct her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#The House of Worth|the House of Worth]] did.
* Comelli may have designed the costumes of the entourage of [[Social Victorians/People/Pless#Daisy, Princess Henry of Pless|Daisy, Princess of Pless]], although Mrs. Mason made Daisy's dress.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dresses Worn at the Duchess of Devonshire's Ball on July 2. Made by Mrs. Mason, 4 New Burlington Street, W.&quot; The ''Queen'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 48 [of 98 BNA; p. 74 print page), Col. 1a–3c [of 3]. British Newspaper Archive https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0002627/18970710/168/0048?browse=true.&lt;/ref&gt; George Cornwallis-West says his costume was &quot;designed by a famous theatrical designer of the day.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Qtd. in Martin Spies, &quot;&quot;Late Victorian Aristocrats and the Racial Other: The Devonshire House Ball of 1897.&quot; ''Race &amp; Class'' April–June 2016 (57.4): 95–103.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|97}}
[[File:Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth.jpg|thumb|''Ellen Terry as Lady Macbeth'', Sargent 1889]]

=== Comyns Carr and Nettleship ===
Alice Comyns Carr and Ada Nettleship

According to Smallhythe Place, the &quot;beetle wing dress&quot; for Ellen Terry's 1888 performance as Lady Macbeth was designed by Alice Comyns Carr and constructed by Ada Nettleship, the &quot;team&quot; that made Ellen Terry's costumes for perhaps 2 decades.&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;&quot;'Beetle Wing Dress' for Lady Macbeth.&quot; Smallhythe Place, Kent. The National Trusts Collections. Object NT 1118839.1 (1888) https://www.nationaltrustcollections.org.uk/object/1118839.1.&lt;/ref&gt; John Singer Sargent's 1889 portrait of Terry in this dress is at right. (Smallhythe Place, Kent, part of the National Trust, was Terry's home from 1899 to her death. This dress is part of that collection.)

Nettleship crocheted the sleeves and skirt of Terry's costume to resemble &quot;soft chain armour,&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; which she overlaid with wing cases from 1,000 beetles.&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://womenwhomeantbusiness.com/2021/01/21/ada-nettleship-1856-1932/|title=Ada Nettleship (1856-1932)|last=B|first=Lizzie|date=2021-01-21|website=Women Who Meant Business|language=en|access-date=2025-06-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Comyn Carr and Nettleship's beetle-wing costume was not the only or even the first dress decorated with the iridescent wings. Ada Nettleship had used beetle wings in &quot;an 1886 dress and an 1887 hat for Constance Lloyd that were oversewn with iridescent green beetle wings&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Ada Nettleship|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada_Nettleship&amp;oldid=1286707541|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; — and [[Social Victorians/People/Dressmakers and Costumiers#Mrs Sims' Court Dress Establishment, Dublin|Mrs Sims]] had used some for a dress in c. 1880.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;

==== Personal Details ====
Alice Laura Vansittart Comyns Carr designed costumes, and dressmaker Adaline Cort Nettleship constructed Comyns Carr's designs. They were a &quot;costume team&quot; separate from those who did the costumes for &quot;the rest of the Lyceum company.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt; They appear to have maintained individual establishments, with Nettelship often constructing costumes for Terry that were designed by Comyns Carr.

Alice Comyns Carr (1850–1927) was married to J. Comyns Carr, &quot;drama and art critic, author, playwright and director of the Grosvenor Gallery.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-04-21|title=Alice Comyns Carr|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alice_Comyns_Carr&amp;oldid=1286707345|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; She was associated with the [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress movement]] and was friends with Edward Burne-Jones and John Singer Sargent as well as Lawrence Alma-Tadema, &quot;the writers Robert Browning and Henry James and composers Hubert Parry and [[Social Victorians/People/Arthur Sullivan|Arthur Sullivan]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Ada (Adaline) Cort Nettleship (1856 – 19 December 1932&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;) was married to painter John Trivett Nettleship. Some of her &quot;[n]otable clients included the soprano Marie Tempest, and the actors Ellen Terry, Winifred Emery, Sarah Bernhardt, and Mrs Patrick Campbell.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt; Like Comyns Carr, Nettleship was an advocate of [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Progressive Style|aesthetic dress design]], making dresses for Constance Lloyd in that progressive style, including her dress for her wedding to [[Social Victorians/People/Oscar Wilde|Oscar Wilde]]. Nettleship &quot;in her youth had been a noted ‘art-embroiderer’ in the style of May Morris.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;

Alice Comyns Carr published her ''Reminiscences'' in 1926, the year before her death. Ada Nettleship was covered by the newspapers from time to time (&quot;''St James Gazette'' 30/5/1883; ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 7/7/1884; ''Morning Post'' 16/10/1886; ''The Queen'' 13/8/1887; ‘Ellen Terry’s gowns and the woman who makes them’ by Bessie O’Connor in ''Harpers Bazaar'' 9th Jan 1897; ‘What Actresses Pay For Their Dresses’ in ''New Zealand Herald'' 25/08/1900; ''South Wales Daily News'' 25/1/1902; ''Leeds Mercury'' 13/2/1914.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;)

=== Mme Fisher ===
Mme. or Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=RA3-PR2&amp;dq=Mr.+May,+Garrick-street,+Covent-garden&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;redir_esc=y|title=The Play-pictorial|date=1908|publisher=Greening &amp; Company, Limited|language=en}} P. ADVT ii. ''Google Books'' https://books.google.com/books?id=cVQZAAAAYAAJ.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
*Miss Mary E. Fisher is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Fox ===
Charles H. Fox: &quot;perruquier and costumier Charles H. Fox. Since 1878, Fox had been a major supplier of wigs and costumes for private theatricals and fancy dress balls.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;&quot;B. J. Simmons &amp; Co.: An Inventory of Its Costume Design Records at the Harry Ransom Center.&quot; ''B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. Costume Design Records''. Harry Ransom Center. The University of Texas. 2023. Retrieved February 2024. https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=01440.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Harrison ===
Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* In a chatty column written as a letter to &quot;Dearest Amy,&quot; the article in ''Truth'' on the ball says, &quot;Princess Henry of Pless was another [Queen of Sheba], and her dress was absolutely magnificent. The conception of it was both poetic and artistic, and is due, I believe, to the genius of Mrs. Harrison.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;{{rp|42, Col. 1b}}
* There are ads for Harrison's.

=== May ===
Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* Mr. May is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}

=== Nathan ===
Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; 17, Convent-street, Picadilly

*Messrs. L. and H. Nathan is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Mr. Karl, artist, designed the costumes made by Messrs. L. and H. Nathan of Coventry-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} &lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
*Messrs Nathan made the costumes for the following people:
**[[Social Victorians/People/Harcourt#Elizabeth Harcourt|Elizabeth, Lady Harcourt]]
**[[Social Victorians/People/Rothschild Family#Emma, Lady Rothschildand Nathan Mayer, Lord Rothschild|Emma, Lady Rothschild]]

=== Simmons and Sons ===
Messrs. John Simmons and Sons, Coventry House, Haymarket.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Simmons, 7 and 8, King Street, Covent Garden.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}} Possibly there are 2 Simmonses?

The Harry Ransom Center has a collection on this firm:&lt;blockquote&gt;The London costumier B. J. Simmons &amp; Co. was founded in 1857 by a Mr. B. J. Simmons and operated by his direct descendants well into the 1930s. Simmons' costumes were known for their correctness of period, sophisticated design, and high quality. ... In their busy Covent Garden workshop, dressmakers turned out immaculately constructed stage apparel, often from renderings by leading costume designers. Successful theater managers repeatedly turned to Simmons for historical costumes, especially Herbert Beerbohm Tree whose magnificent stagings of Shakespeare were often outfitted by Simmons.

While best known as a historical costumier for the London stage, Simmons' output was diverse. The company created costumes for a variety of shows in the West End, the provinces, and overseas, ranging from Victorian pantomime to the &quot;kitchen sink&quot; dramas of the 1960s. ... In addition to making new costumes for professional productions, Simmons operated a thriving rental business which allowed operatic and dramatic societies across England to hire beautifully made garments for amateur productions. Like many theatrical costumiers, Simmons maintained a substantial nontheatrical trade.

Simmons began as a family-run outfit known variously as B. J. Simmons, J. B. Simmons, John Simmons &amp; Son/Sons, Simmons/Symmons/Simmonds Brothers, G. B. Simmons, and B. &amp; G. Simmons. The force majeure seems to have been John Simmons, whose name appears in ''The London Stage'' and in London newspapers until 1922. According to J. P. Wearing, between 1890 and 1899 Simmons provided costumes for at least forty-two theatre productions in London.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Simmons' contributions to costumes for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:
* Messrs. John Simmons and Son is cited as one of the sources of its information about the costumes by the London ''Evening Standard''.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}
* Simmons and Sons made costumes for the following guests at the ball:
** [[Social Victorians/People/Ellesmere#Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball|Francis Egerton, 3rd Earl of Ellesmere]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Duke of Somerset&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** The Marquis of Winchester&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Beauchamp&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Carrington&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Earl Essex&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}
** Viscount Esher&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lord Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
** Lady Ampthill&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
Simmons and Sons is also sometimes listed as having made clothing for other social events:

* For the [[Social Victorians/1892-02-10 Alington Leigh Wedding|very fashionable February 1892 wedding between Henry Sturt, Lord Alington and Evelyn Leigh]] — the &quot;most important social event of last week in the social world&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot;&gt;&quot;Lord Alington to Miss Leigh.&quot; ''Gentlewoman'' 20 February 1892, Saturday: 21 [of 46], Cols. 1a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18920220/092/0021. Same print title, p. 237.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|Col. 1a}} — &quot;Messrs. Simmons &amp; Sons, of Coventry House, Haymarket, made the charming little suits for the pages, which were so much admired.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:03&quot; /&gt;{{rp|Col. 3a}}

=== Smaller Concerns ===
* Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot;&gt;“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}
* Mr. W. Clarkson, 44, Wellington Street (costumes and wigs)&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

=== Unknown Whether Costumier or Dressmaker ===
*Mme. Ellis: &quot;The pretty costumes of Merlin and Vivian worn by [[Social Victorians/People/Walker|Mr and Mrs Willie Walker]] at the Devonshire House Ball, were made by Mme. Ellis, 16, Upper George-street, Bryanston-square.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Holt, Ardern. &quot;Dress and Fashion. To Correspondents.&quot; The ''Queen'' 24 July 1897, Saturday: 54 [of 88], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive''  https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002627/18970724/271/0054.&lt;/ref&gt;
* Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor Place
* &quot;and many others&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}

== Perruquiers ==
Mr. W. Clarkson &quot;supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}} for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]]:&lt;blockquote&gt;At the Duchess of Devonshire's ball, on the 2d inst., the Prince of Wales looked as if he had stepped out of a masterpiece by one of the old painters. His wig, which completed a correct make-up as Knight of Malta, was specially made and fitted by that favoured &quot;Royal Perruquier&quot; Mr Willie Clarkson, who also had the honour of making and fitting the wigs worn by Prince Charles of Denmark, the Duke of York, and the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and of dressing the hair of the Duchess of York and the Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. Mr Clarkson also supplied a number of the costumes, including those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, Princess Louise, and the Duke of Manchester. It would not be safe to say how many crowned heads have literally &quot;passed through the hands&quot; of Mr Clarkson. The art of the perruquier is a very difficult one, requiring historical knowledge, patient research, and great taste. It is most essential to the success of any theatrical performance or of an historical ball.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;“Foreign Plays and Players.” ''The Era'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 15 [of 28], Col. 3c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000053/18970710/032/0015.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;Clarkson also provided costumes and wigs for the [[Social Victorians/Royals Amateur Theatricals|amateur theatricals]] that the royals took part in to entertain themselves.

== Jewelers ==
By way of gossip about the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], according to the ''Westminster Gazette'', &quot;One very great lady indeed had been lent, by a jeweller, diamonds worth about £13,000.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;“The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 2c}}

=== The Parisian Diamond Company ===

* 43, Burlington Arcade
* 85, New Bond street
* 143, Regent-street

After naming costumiers for the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 1897 fancy-dress ball]], the ''Gentlewoman'' specifically mentions the Parisian Company for its jewelry and Mr. Norman of Bond Street for the shoes he made:&lt;blockquote&gt;Among other firms [than the costumiers] who lent their aid to make the great ball a huge success was the Parisian Company, whose sparkling gems and jewels, and whose ropes of pearls and precious stones, enhanced the charms of many a fair dame in her dainty old-world costume, and the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, who designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &amp;c., &amp;c.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Lady's Pictorial'' also mentions the Parisian Diamond Company in the context of the Devonshire House ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball promises to be an almost historic function, where all that is loveliest in the way of women, gowns, and jewels will be brought together to dazzle the eyes of all beholders. And from what a little bird has whispered to me I am convinced that one of the sensations of the night will be provided by the exquisite and wonderful pieces of jewellery which are being executed for the occasion by that enterprising Parisian Diamond Co., to whose inventive genius there is absolutely no end. They have excelled themselves in the unique and daring originality of the designs — in fact they have taken full advantage of a very special opportunity for the display of their perfect taste and workmanship.

If you are not going to the Duchess’s ball, you will most certainly be present at one or other of the festivities of the Jubilee season, and one or other of these things of beauty and of diamonds, which are portrayed for you on page 931, will be in consequence a necessary addition to your jewel-case. I am quite sure that if you put the case properly before an indulgent husband or father he will see the full force of the argument.

What could possibly be lovelier than that spray of wild roses and ferns, caught together with a true-lover's knot, while trails of ribbon cross the corsage and fasten high up on the right shoulder with a quaint lizard? It is a triumph of design and workmanship — my congratulations to the Company who produced it and the lucky woman who is its ultimate possessor.

Failing the corsage ornament, that comb, or dagger, or aigrette, where the famous Orient pearls are introduced, would, I am sure, be acceptable — go and see them at the Company’s new establishment at 143, Regent-street, where the beauty of the jewels is enhanced by the artistic loveliness of the surroundings, with which, by the way, I have already made you acquainted. The Company’s other addresses are 43, Burlington Arcade, and 85, New Bond street.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Jewellery Wonders by the Parisian Diamond Co.&quot; London Fashions. ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 63 [of 92], Col. 1a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/104/0063. Same print title, p. 945.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Shoemakers ==
According to the ''Gentlewoman'', &quot;the firm of Mr. Norman, 69, New Bond-street, ... designed and made the shoes for the Princess of Wales, the Duchess of Buccleuch, &amp;c., &amp;c.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3c}}

== People Who Made Costumes for the Ball ==
The ''Queen'' often mentions the dressmaker or costumier in its reports on the costumes at the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 fancy-dress ball at Devonshire House]] as well as in general.

The ''Gentlewoman'' covered this topic explicitly in its report on the ball:&lt;blockquote&gt;Very great credit is due to the taste and artistic powers of the designers of these dresses, and particular mention must be made of M. Comelli, of Covent Garden Theatre, whose facile pen designed most of the superb toilettes so ably carried out by Messrs. Alias, of Soho-square. Other theatrical costumiers who brought all their special talents to bear on the historical and fancy costumes required for this function were Messrs. Nathan (artist, Mr. Karl), of Coventry-street; Messrs. John Simmons &amp; Sons, Haymarket; Mme. Auguste, of Wellington-street; Harrison's, Ltd., 31, Bow-street; Simmons, 7 and 8, King-street; Mr. Clarkson, 44, Wellington-street; Mme. Fisher, 26, Bedford-street; and many others. A great number of well-known modistes in London were also called upon to supply dresses. Amongst these we chronicle M. Mason, New Burlington-street; M. Machinka, Conduit-street; Paquin, of Dover-street; Jays, Ltd., Regent-street; Messrs. Durrant, 116, Bond-street (who made Lady Londonderry's magnificent gown), and numerous others.&lt;ref name=&quot;:42&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 42, Col. 3b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The London ''Evening Standard'' cites the sources of its information about the costumes:&lt;blockquote&gt;We are indebted for some of the particulars of the dresses to Mr. Charles Alias, Soho-square; Messrs. L. and H. Nathan, Coventry-street, Haymarket; Messrs. John Simmons and Son, Coventry House, Haymarket; Mr. May, Garrick-street, Covent-garden; Miss Mary E. Fisher, 26 Bedford-street, Covent-garden; and the ''Lady'' newspaper.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 3, Col. 5b}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Morning Post'' also addressed the costumiers. It named Mr. Alias in association with the royals, as well as mentioning several other costumiers by name:&lt;blockquote&gt;The costumes worn by the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York, and the Duchess of Connaught, as well as many others were supplied by Mr. Alias, of Soho-square. Those worn by the Grand Duke Michael of Russia, the Duke of Manchester, Princess Victor of Hohenlohe, and others were made by Mr. W. Clarkson, of Wellington-street, who also supplied the wigs and headdresses for the Royal Family. Messrs. Simmons and Sons, of the Haymarket, made a large number of costumes, including those of the Duke of Somerset, the Marquis of Winchester, Earls Beauchamp, Carrington, Ellesmere, and Essex. Nathan, of Coventry-street, and Simmons, of King-street, Covent-garden; Madame Frederic, of Lower Grosvenor-place, and Mrs. Mason, of New Burlington-street, also made some of the principal costumes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;{{rp|p. 8, Col. 2a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ''Lady's Pictorial''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'s &quot;Our Irish Letter&quot; of 26 June 1897 says,&lt;blockquote&gt;The Duchess of Devonshire’s fancy dress ball on July 2nd is arousing the very greatest interest in all circles. We hear a large number of the very beautiful costumes which will be worn at this dance are being made by Simmons's, the celebrated historical costumiers, 7 and 8, King-street, Covent Garden.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Our Irish Letter.&quot; ''Lady's Pictorial'' 26 June 1897, Saturday: 76 [of 92], Col. 2c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0005980/18970626/139/0076. Print title same, p. 952.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;On 3 July 1897, the day after the ball, the ''Belfast News-letter'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;For weeks past all the leading London dressmakers and costumiers had been hard at work executing the orders for this great ball. At Alias Nathan's, Clarkson's, Auguste's, and Simmons' all hands set to with a will, and it is gratifying to know that the dresses entrusted to them more than held their own with those sent over from Paris.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;&quot;The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram.&quot; ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9c [of 9]–6, Col. 1a. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to the ''Derbyshire Times and Chesterfield Herald'', citing the ''Daily Mail'',
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lady de Grey is going as Zenobia, and is getting her dress from Doucet, I hear, while Worth also is making a great many costumes; but the greatest number are being made in England. The Duchess of Portland, the Duchess of Hamilton, Lady Mar and Kellie, and [[Social Victorians/People/Muriel Wilson|Miss Muriel Wilson]] are all going to the costumier in Soho-square, and Alias has also been summoned to Marlborough House for a consultation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Mr. Caryl Craven, who is so clever in such matters, is helping the Duchess of Leeds with her dress; in fact, everyone seems pressed into the service, and the result will be one of the most brilliant sights that ever was seen.&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; 
== Notes and Questions ==

# Which costumier was this? &quot;A well-known West End dressmaker booked for the Duchess of Devonshire's fancy dress ball orders representing £27000.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;London Letter.&quot; ''Western Daily Press'' 15 July 1897, Thursday: 8 [of 8], Col. 7c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000264/18970715/146/0008.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== References ==
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      <text bytes="27006" sha1="35m5ovrwgo4k20vh78vipt84i6q7ep4" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Machine learning models designed for natural language processing}}
[[File:LLM-logo.svg|thumb]]
Large language models (LLM's) are software programs that are also known as a form of &quot;artificial intelligence&quot; (AI); LLM's are specifically an aspect of generative AI. This wiki area is for learning, teaching, and research related to LLM's. 
{{RightTOC}}
[[Image:Multiple attention heads.png|right|280px|thumb|An illustration of multiple attention heads, each having its own criteria of relevance of other tokens for one of the tokens within the scope of a context window. (For the purpose of illustration, the context window consists of only one sentence.]]

==Discourse and ideas==
Here is discourse and ideas related to large language models. Perhaps once significantly developed/refined, some of these can have their own sub-page or become a unique learning resource. 
===Learning wikis as training data===
Unless laws change, Creative Commons content appears to be valid training data for LLM's. As LLM's progress and advance, more and more data can be utilized to training increasingly complex models. Learning wikis devoted to learning, teaching, and resource, that allow for original research and original content creation (related to learning, teaching, and research), can potentially be extremely valuable (in terms of educational value) for large language models. Perhaps in the future (if this does not already exist), large language models will be able to continuously be trained on, retain, and learn from new data and information. Perhaps in the future, an open source large language model could only be trained on Creative Commons data, and therefore, all generated content would also be licensed under Creative Commons. 

==Discussion questions==
Here are some learning and teaching oriented discussion questions related to large language models. Humans can use language and mental effort to explore these ideas collaboratively, or some of these could be used as prompts to see how an LLM might respond. 
* Would a large language model that is only trained on Creative Commons licensed data only be capable of generating responses to prompts that can also be rightly and correctly licensed under a Creative Commons license? 
* How might large language models affect learning and research. Will LLM's eventually seen like calculators are in math and sciences now? But for everything (all subjects/topics, including math, physics, ethics, biology, psychology, chemistry, engineering, art)? 
* What are some ethical considerations related to large language models that should be considered? 
* What are some pros and cons to open source large language models? Will open source LLM's likely become more advanced the propriety LLM's eventually? What do you think? 
* How can large language models help to advance and accelerate technological automation in ways that will benefit all of humanity? 
* In what ways can large language models help programmers to code?
* Can music be thought of a language within the realm of large language models? 
* What is differentiable computing and how does differentiable computing relate to large language models? 
* How can teachers utilize large language models to help accelerate student learning and to help students learn more efficiently? 

== Educational prompt ideas==
These are original prompt ideas regarding ways to learn about large language models, and also to explore using LLM's for learning, teaching, and research. Input these into your preferred LLM (without quotes) to see what results are generated. LLM's might produce interesting or useful answers in response to these prompts. Some of these prompts may be interesting or useful for discussions among and between humans. 

* &quot;Describe to me how large language models can be utilized for learning, teaching, and research. Do this in an about 200 word two paragraph mini essay. Explain it to me like I am a freshman in community college.&quot; 
* &quot;Give me a list of 12 ways that large language models can be utilized for learning, teaching, and research.&quot;
* &quot;How can LLM's be utilized to accelerate the pace of research and scientific discovery?&quot;
* &quot;What are some ethical considerations related to large language models that should be considered?&quot;
* &quot;What are some pros and cons to open source large language models? Will open source LLM's likely become more advanced the propriety LLM's eventually? What do you think?&quot;
* &quot;What are some project ideas to integrate large language models in with humanoid robots, and/or other sorts of robots? Please give me 15 project ideas that can be relatively simple or extremely complex.&quot;
* &quot;Please search the Internet if possible. In what ways have university professors and academic researchers been using large language models in the last year? Please respond in list form.&quot;
* &quot;In what ways can large language models help programmers to code? Please provide me 8 examples and respond in list form.&quot;
* &quot;Can music be thought of a language within the realm of large language models?&quot;
* &quot;What is differentiable computing and how does differentiable computing relate to large language models?&quot;
* &quot;How can one fine tune an open source large language model?&quot;
* &quot;What are some popular state of the art open source large language models. Please search the internet as helpful and respond to me in list form.&quot;
* &quot;Please give me a list of important terminology that I should be aware of when working with and training open source large language models. Please be comprehensive. Please respond in list form. And please search the internet as helpful.&quot;
* &quot;What sort of hardware should I utilize to run the most competent open source large language models that I want to utilize for learning, teaching, and research? Please search the internet as helpful.&quot;
* &quot;How can teachers utilize large language models to help accelerate student learning and to help students learn more efficiently? Please respond in list form.&quot;
* &quot;How can researchers utilize large language models to create theories, hypothesis, and to formulate potential research studies? Please respond in short paragraphs, but in list form.&quot;

== Readings and learning media ==
=== Wikipedia ===
{{:Cross-domain_AI_topics}}
==== LLM Topics ====
Categories and lists:
: {{wc|Natural language processing}}
:: {{wc|Tasks of natural language processing}}
: {{wc|Large language models}}
:: {{wc|Generative pre-trained transformers}}
:: {{w|List of large language models}}

===== Basics =====
: {{w|ChatGPT}}
: {{w|Large language model}}
: {{w|Prompt engineering}}
: {{w|GPT-4}}
: {{w|ChatGPT in education}}
: {{w|Turing test}}
: {{w|Natural-language understanding}}
: {{w|Word embedding}}
===== Intermediate =====
: {{w|Transformer (deep learning architecture)}}
: {{w|Attention (machine learning)}}
: {{w|LLaMA}}
: {{w|Mistral AI}}
: {{w|Foundation model}}
: {{w|LangChain}}
: {{w|Generative pre-trained transformer}} (GPT)
: {{w|GitHub Copilot}}

===== Advanced =====
: {{w|Reflection (artificial intelligence)}}
: {{w|Reasoning language model}}
: {{w|Retrieval-augmented generation}}
: {{w|Knowledge distillation}}
: {{w|Model compression}}
: {{w|History of natural language processing}}
: {{w|Neural scaling law}}
: {{w|GitHub Copilot}}
: {{w|Automated reasoning}}
: {{w|Mixture of experts}}
: {{w|Gemini (language model)}}
: {{w|Auto-GPT}}
: {{w|VideoPoet}}
: {{w|Artificial intelligence in Wikimedia projects}}
: {{w|Artificial intelligence content detection}}
: {{w|Language model}}
:: {{w|Language model benchmark}}
:: {{w|Language_model#Evaluation_and_benchmarks|Evaluation and benchmarks}}
::: {{w|MMLU}}
: {{wc|Tasks of natural language processing}}
:: {{w|Question answering}}
:: {{w|Sentiment analysis}}
:: {{w|Named-entity recognition}}
: {{w|Zero-shot learning}}
: More
:: Internals
::: {{w|Word2vec}}
::: {{w|Seq2seq}}
::: {{w|GloVe}}
:: {{w|List of large language models}}
::: {{w|BERT (language model)|BERT}}
::: {{w|T5 (language model)|T5}}
::: {{w|Llama (language model)|Llama}}
::: {{w|Chinchilla (language model)|Chinchilla AI}}
::: {{w|PaLM}}
::: {{w|Generative pre-trained transformer|GPT}}
::: {{w|GPT-1|1}}, {{w|GPT-2|2}}, {{w|GPT-3|3}}, {{w|GPT-J|J}}
:::: {{w|ChatGPT}}
:::: {{w|GPT-4|4}}, {{w|GPT-4o|4o}}
:::: {{w|OpenAI o1|o1}}, {{w|OpenAI o3|o3}}
::: {{w|Claude (language model)|Claude}}
::: {{w|Gemini (language model)|Gemini}}
:::: {{w|Gemini (chatbot)|chatbot}}
::: {{w|Grok (chatbot)|Grok}}
:: {{w|LaMDA}}
::: {{w|BLOOM (language model)|BLOOM}}
::: {{w|Project Debater}}
::: {{w|IBM Watson}}
::: {{w|IBM Watsonx}}
::: {{w|IBM Granite|Granite}}
::: {{w|Huawei PanGu|PanGu-Σ}}
::: {{w|DeepSeek}}
::: {{w|Qwen}}

===External===
: [https://arena-chapter1-transformer-interp.streamlit.app/ Transformer Interpretability, ARENA]
: [https://rdi.berkeley.edu/llm-agents/f24 LLM agents course, Berkeley], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QL-FS_Zcmyo @youtube]
: https://anthropic.skilljar.com/
: https://hf.co/learn/, [https://hf.co/learn/smol-course Smol LLM fine-tuning course]
: https://academy.openai.com/
: https://cookbook.openai.com/
: https://academy.langchain.com/
: [https://medium.com/@tom_21755/understanding-causal-llms-masked-llm-s-and-seq2seq-a-guide-to-language-model-training-d4457bbd07fa Understanding Causal LLM’s, Masked LLM’s, and Seq2Seq: A Guide to Language Model Training Approaches]
: Docs
:: https://docs.x.ai/
:: https://platform.deepseek.com/
:: https://platform.openai.com/
:: https://docs.anthropic.com/
:: https://docs.mistral.ai/
: Papers, publications
:: https://huggingface.co/papers
:: [https://arxiv.org/abs/2201.11903 Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Models, 2022]
:: [https://arxiv.org/abs/2106.09685 LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Models, 2021]
:: [https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762 Attention Is All You Need, 2017]
: Articles
:: https://www.pinecone.io/learn/retrieval-augmented-generation/
:: [https://stpp.fordschool.umich.edu/tags/large-language-models Large Language Models] - Articles
:: [https://hai.stanford.edu/news/how-large-language-models-will-transform-science-society-and-ai How Large Language Models Will Transform Science, Society, and AI]
:: [https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/blog/harnessing-the-power-of-large-language-models-for-economic-and-social-good-foundations/ Harnessing the Power of Large Language Models For Economic and Social Good: Foundations]
:: [https://courses.grainger.illinois.edu/CS447/sp2023/Slides/Lecture27.pdf Lecture 27: Intro to Large Language Models]

==== Deep Reinforcement Learning ====
: [https://hf.co/learn/deep-rl-course/unit0/introduction Deep RL]
:: Huggy, Q-Learning

==== Model Context Protocol (MCP) Course ====
: [https://huggingface.co/learn/mcp-course/unit0/introduction MCP Course]
:: Continue, Gradio, Hugging Face Hub, Claude Code, GitHub, Slack

==== AI Agents Course ====
[https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit0/introduction Hugging Face AI Agents Course]
: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit1/introduction Introduction to Agents]
:: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit1/agent-steps-and-structure Thought-Action-Observation Cycle]
: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/introduction Frameworks for AI Agents]
:: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/introduction smolagents] 
::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/code_agents code agents]
::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/tools tools]
::: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/smolagents/multi_agent_systems multi-agent]
::: ... [https://huggingface.co/docs/smolagents/index docs]
:: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/llama-index/introduction LlamaIndex]
::: ... [https://docs.llamaindex.ai/en/stable/understanding/ docs]
:: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit2/langgraph/introduction LangGraph]
::: ... [https://academy.langchain.com/courses/intro-to-langgraph Introduction to LangGraph], [https://langchain-ai.github.io/langgraph/ docs]
: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/unit3/agentic-rag/introduction Use Case for Agentic RAG]
:: [https://huggingface.co/learn/agents-course/unit3/agentic-rag/invitees tools]
: bonus
:: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/bonus-unit1/introduction Fine-tuning an LLM for Function-calling]
:: [https://hf.co/learn/agents-course/bonus-unit2/introduction Agent Observability and Evaluation]

==== LLM Course ====
Introductory course about natural large language models (LLMs) and language processing (NLP) using libraries from the Hugging Face ecosystem &amp;ndash; Transformers, Datasets, Tokenizers, and Accelerate.

: [https://hf.co/course/chapter0/1 '''LLM Course''']
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/1 Transformer models]
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/2 NLP and LLM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/3 What], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/4 How], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/5 Encoder], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/6 Decoder], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/7 Sequence-to-sequence], [https://hf.co/course/chapter1/8 Bias and limitations], 
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/1 Using transformers]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/2 pipeline], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/3 models], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/4 tokenizer], [https://hf.co/course/chapter2/5 batching], decoding, padding, attention mask
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/1 Fine-tuning a pretrained model]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/2 Preprocessing]&lt;small&gt;: tokenization, padding&lt;/small&gt;, [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/3 Fine-tuning], [https://hf.co/course/chapter3/4 Full training], map, [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/index dataset], dynamic padding, batch, collate function, train, predict, evaluate, [https://github.com/huggingface/accelerate accelerate]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/1 Sharing models and tokenizers]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/2 Using], [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/3 Sharing]: push_to_hub, upload_file, Repository, git lfs, [https://hf.co/course/chapter4/4 Model card]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/1 The datasets library]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/2 Loading dataset], [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/3 Slicing], batch, DataFrame, validation, splitting, [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/4 Big]: streaming, [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/5 Creating], [https://hf.co/course/chapter5/6 Semantic search]: embedding, [https://faiss.ai/ FAISS]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/1 The tokenizers library]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/2 Training tokenizer], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/3 Fast], grouping, [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/3b QnA], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/4 Pre-tokenization], ([https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/models models],[https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/trainers trainers]), [https://hf.co/course/en/chapter6/5 Byte-Pair Encoding (BPE)], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/6 WordPiece], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/7 Unigram], [https://hf.co/course/chapter6/8 Building]: [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/api/post-processors post processors], [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers/components#decoders decoders]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/1 Main nlp tasks]:
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/2 Token classification], metrics, perplexity, [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/3 Fine-tuning a masked LM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/4 Translation], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/5 Summarization], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/6 CLM], [https://hf.co/course/chapter7/7 QnA]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/1 How to ask for help]
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/2 Error], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/3 Forums], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/4 Debugging], [https://hf.co/course/chapter8/5 Issue]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/1 Gradio Demos]
::: [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/2 Building], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/3 Interface class], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/4 Sharing], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/5 Integration], [https://hf.co/course/chapter9/7 Gradio Blocks]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter10/1 Curate high-quality datasets]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter11/1 Fine-tune Large Language Models]
:: [https://hf.co/course/chapter12/1 Build Reasoning Models]
:: [https://hf.co/course/events/1 Course Events]

==== Hugging Face docs ====
: https://hf.co/docs
: [https://hf.co/spaces/HuggingFaceTB/smol-training-playbook The Smol Training Playbook: The Secrets to Building World-Class LLMs]
===== Core libraries =====
::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers Transformers] &amp;ndash; State-of-the-art ML for Pytorch, TensorFlow, and JAX.
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/pipeline_tutorial Inference, Tutorials]
::::: {{colbegin|2}} Run inference with pipelines, Write portable code with AutoClass, Preprocess data, Fine-tune a pretrained model, Train with a script, Set up distributed training with Accelerate, Load and train adapters with PEFT, Share your model, Agents 101, Agents, supercharged - Multi-agents, External tools, and more, Generation with LLMs, Chatting with Transformers {{colend}}
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/pipeline_tutorial Pipline]
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/llm_tutorial LLM]
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/conversations Chat]
:::: Tasks
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/sequence_classification NLP]
:::::: Text classification, Token classification, Question answering, Causal language modeling, Masked language modeling, Translation, Summarization, Multiple choice
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/audio_classification Audio], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/image_classification Vision],[https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/image_captioning Multimodal], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/generation_strategies Generation], [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/tasks/idefics Prompting]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/fast_tokenizers Developer guides]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/quantization/overview Quantization]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/performance Performance]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/contributing Contributing]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/philosophy Conceptual guides]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/agent API]
::::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/pipelines#transformers.pipeline pipeline] &amp;ndash; simple interface for inference with models.
::::: ...
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/model_doc/albert Text models]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/internal/modeling_utils Internal helpers]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/model_doc/auto#auto-classes Auto classes]: AutoConfig, AutoModel, and AutoTokenizer. The from_pretrained method.
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/trainer#transformers.Trainer Trainer] and [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main_classes/trainer#transformers.TrainingArguments TrainingArguments] 
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers/main/en/glossary Glossary]
::::: [https://huggingface.co/docs/transformers/main/en/glossary#head model head]
::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets Datasets] &amp;ndash; Access and share datasets for computer vision, audio, and NLP tasks.
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/tutorial Tutorials]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/how_to How-to guides]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/about_arrow Conceptual guides]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/datasets/package_reference/main_classes Reference]
::: [https://hf.co/docs/accelerate Accelerate] &amp;ndash; Easily train and use PyTorch models with multi-GPU, TPU, mixed-precision.
::: [https://hf.co/docs/tokenizers Tokenizers] &amp;ndash; Fast tokenizers, optimized for both research and production.
:::: Main components: Normalizers, Pre-tokenizers, Models, Post-Processors, Decoders
:::: More APIs: ... Input Sequences, Encode Inputs, Tokenizer, Encoding, Added Tokens, Visualizer

===== More docs =====
:: [https://hf.co/docs/hub Hub] &amp;ndash; Host Git-based models, datasets and Spaces on the Hugging Face Hub.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/diffusers Diffusers] &amp;ndash; State-of-the-art diffusion models for image and audio generation in PyTorch.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/huggingface_hub Hub Python Library] &amp;ndash; Client library for the HF Hub: manage repositories from your Python runtime.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/huggingface.js Huggingface.js] &amp;ndash; A collection of JS libraries to interact with Hugging Face, with TS types included.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/transformers.js Transformers.js] &amp;ndash; Community library to run pretrained models from Transformers in your browser.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/api-inference Inference API (serverless)] &amp;ndash; Experiment with over 200k models easily using the serverless tier of Inference Endpoints.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/inference-endpoints Inference Endpoints (dedicated)] &amp;ndash; Easily deploy models to production on dedicated, fully managed infrastructure.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/peft PEFT] &amp;ndash; Parameter efficient fine-tuning methods for large models
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/tutorial/peft_model_config Tutorial]
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/task_guides/prompt_based_methods PEFT method guides]
:::: LoRA, IA3
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/developer_guides/model_merging Developer guides]
:::: Model merging, Quantization, LoRA, Custom models, Adapter injection, Mixed adapter types, torch.compile, Contribute to PEFT, Troubleshooting, PEFT checkpoint format
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/accelerate/deepspeed Acceselerate]
:::: DeepSpeed, Fully Sharded Data Parallel
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/conceptual_guides/adapter Conceptual guides]
:::: Adapters, Soft prompts: Prompt tuning, Prefix tuning, P-tuning, Multitask prompt tuning, CPT; IA3, OFT/BOFT
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/auto_class API reference]
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/auto_class Main classes]
::::: AutoPeftModel, PEFT model, PEFT types, Configuration, Tuner
:::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/adalora Adapters]
::::: {{colbegin|2}} AdaLoRA, IA3, Llama-Adapter, LoHa, LoKr, LoRA, X-LoRA, LyCORIS, Multitask Prompt Tuning, OFT, BOFT, Polytropon, P-tuning, Prefix tuning, Prompt tuning, Layernorm tuning,   VeRA, FourierFT, VB-LoRA, HRA, CPT, Bone{{colend}}
::: [https://hf.co/docs/peft/package_reference/merge_utils Utilities]
:::: Model merge, Helpers, Hotswapping adapters
:: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum Optimum] &amp;ndash; Fast training and inference of HF Transformers with easy to use hardware optimization tools.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum-neuron AWS Trainium &amp;amp; Inferentia] &amp;ndash; Train and Deploy Transformers &amp;amp; Diffusers with AWS Trainium and AWS Inferentia via Optimum
:: [https://hf.co/docs/evaluate Evaluate] &amp;ndash; Evaluate and report model performance easier and more standardized.
::: types: metrics, comparisons, measurements
:: [https://hf.co/tasks Tasks]
::: extraction, question answering, classification, generation ...
:: [https://hf.co/docs/dataset-viewer Dataset viewer] &amp;ndash; API to access the contents, metadata and basic statistics of all Hugging Face Hub datasets.
::: Splits and subsets, [https://github.com/huggingface/dataset-viewer dataset-viewer]
:: [https://hf.co/docs/trl TRL] &amp;ndash; Transformer Reinforcement Learning
:::  reward modeling, fine-tuning, optimizations, 
:: [https://hf.co/docs/sagemaker Amazon SageMaker] &amp;ndash; Train and Deploy Transformer models with Amazon SageMaker and Hugging Face Deep Learning Containers (DLC).
:: [https://hf.co/docs/timm timm] &amp;ndash; Pytorch Image Models.
::: State-of-the-art computer vision models, layers, optimizers, training/evaluation, and utilities.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/safetensors Safetensors] &amp;ndash; Simple, safe way to store and distribute neural networks weights.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference Text Generation Inference (TGI)] &amp;ndash; Toolkit to serve Large Language Models.
::: Conceptual Guides
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/chunking V3 update, caching and chunking]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/streaming Streaming]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/quantization Quantization]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/tensor_parallelism Tensor Parallelism]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/paged_attention PagedAttention]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/safetensors Safetensors]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/flash_attention Flash Attention]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/speculation Speculation (Medusa, ngram)]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/guidance How Guidance Works (via outlines)]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/lora LoRA (Low-Rank Adaptation)]
::::  [https://hf.co/docs/text-generation-inference/conceptual/external External Resources]

:: [https://hf.co/docs/text-embeddings-inference Text Embeddings Inference] &amp;ndash; Toolkit to serve Text Embedding Models.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/competitions Competitions] &amp;ndash; Create your own competitions on Hugging Face.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/bitsandbytes Bitsandbytes] &amp;ndash; Toolkit to optimize and quantize models.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/optimum-tpu Google TPUs] &amp;ndash; Deploy models on [https://cloud.google.com/tpu/docs Google TPUs] via Optimum.
:: [https://hf.co/docs/chat-ui Chat UI] &amp;ndash; Open source chat frontend, powers the [https://hf.co/chat HuggingChat] app.
:: Extras
::: [https://hf.co/docs/hugs Hugging Face Generative AI Services (HUGS)] 
::: [https://hf.co/docs/leaderboards Leaderboards] &amp;ndash; Create your own Leaderboards on Hugging Face.
::: [https://hf.co/docs/autotrain AutoTrain] &amp;ndash; AutoTrain API and UI.
:::: [https://hf.co/autotrain autotrain]
::: [https://huggingface.co/docs/smolagents/index smolagents]

===Videos===
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5sLYAQS9sWQ How Large Language Models Work]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JhCl-GeT4jw Large Language Models and The End of Programming - CS50 Tech Talk with Dr. Matt Welsh]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yBI1nPep72Q LMStudio Tutorial Run ANY Open-Source Model LOCALLY]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UU1WVnMk4E8 Create a Large Language Model from Scratch with Python – Tutorial]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC6Hd1hFvos Fine-tuning Large Language Models (LLMs) | w/ Example Code]

===Data sets===
* [https://hf.co/blog/Pclanglais/two-trillion-tokens-open Releasing the largest multilingual open pretraining dataset]
:: [https://hf.co/datasets/PleIAs/common_corpus Common Corpus]
:: [https://hf.co/datasets/PleIAs/common_corpus/tree/main Files and versions]

==See also==
: [[Computer science]]
: [[Artificial intelligence]]
: [[Machine learning]]
: [[Artificial Intelligence &amp; Machine Learning]]
: [[Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Laboratory]]
: [[Artificial Consciousness]]
: [[Supersymmetric Artificial Neural Network]]
: [[History of artificial intelligence]]

[[Category: Computer science]]
[[Category: Machine learning]]
[[Category: Artificial intelligence]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bully Metric Timestamps</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>305659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816476</id>
      <parentid>2815911</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:31:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Years and Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816476</origin>
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      <text bytes="20781" sha1="ojqp23bsgc566r0ruce8ecgmiiywkpl" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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      <text bytes="20875" sha1="im4xobvdks9q2phq5kze5x82j8u4bdh" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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      <id>2816478</id>
      <parentid>2816477</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:40:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Years and Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816478</origin>
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      <text bytes="20900" sha1="2pt17e97qb7awk0n7otti2hjpm3a7dx" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

==== Galactic Weeks ====
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>2pt17e97qb7awk0n7otti2hjpm3a7dx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816479</id>
      <parentid>2816478</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:40:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816479</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20898" sha1="24989kbicc5ggcutia25dl249ya9cqo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>24989kbicc5ggcutia25dl249ya9cqo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816480</id>
      <parentid>2816479</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816480</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20925" sha1="aluwj6gpo9y8da96wdbup3gqgql3kty" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

==== Galactic year 65 ====
The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>aluwj6gpo9y8da96wdbup3gqgql3kty</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816481</id>
      <parentid>2816480</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:44:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <text bytes="20899" sha1="59n9cwiy5mzdbdh3bkgak0d3k7m7ld8" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 


The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>59n9cwiy5mzdbdh3bkgak0d3k7m7ld8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816482</id>
      <parentid>2816481</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:44:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816482</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20898" sha1="24989kbicc5ggcutia25dl249ya9cqo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>24989kbicc5ggcutia25dl249ya9cqo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816483</id>
      <parentid>2816482</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816483</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20925" sha1="4q9alyekfssxwxe8xtkb6lh28ijjm0k" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_3.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
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      <text bytes="20925" sha1="czdf46om21x3gs0z2j55ab7nnitu9su" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816485</id>
      <parentid>2816484</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:47:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
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      <text bytes="20972" sha1="hqm8rwhzdlcfrh03e3f5c3er1lzm96n" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>hqm8rwhzdlcfrh03e3f5c3er1lzm96n</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816486</id>
      <parentid>2816485</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
      <origin>2816486</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21032" sha1="sx42sp12ef0tt8yqdoy0pfe1uc2ympl" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>sx42sp12ef0tt8yqdoy0pfe1uc2ympl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816487</id>
      <parentid>2816486</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:50:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
      <origin>2816487</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21148" sha1="1qjvsdexk4nd0dg8hlwbrxqy6mgasj3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).
[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>1qjvsdexk4nd0dg8hlwbrxqy6mgasj3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816488</id>
      <parentid>2816487</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:51:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Years and Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816488</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21149" sha1="cbr1qds054aa42zeadhnp0yvo5r0cno" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>cbr1qds054aa42zeadhnp0yvo5r0cno</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816489</id>
      <parentid>2816488</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:54:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <text bytes="20805" sha1="6hezoljj3cjuz3ap5wj55eldq37y9oz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year. 

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>6hezoljj3cjuz3ap5wj55eldq37y9oz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816490</id>
      <parentid>2816489</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:55:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
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      <text bytes="21148" sha1="la2vdm5l9738c5d1qd0cl2d6jlfp5e3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816491</id>
      <parentid>2816490</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:56:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
      <origin>2816491</origin>
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      <text bytes="20831" sha1="noxfe4o5gucyet4km8rc09mrvxpmao1" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

==== Galactic year 65 ====
The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>noxfe4o5gucyet4km8rc09mrvxpmao1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816492</id>
      <parentid>2816491</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:57:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2816492</origin>
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      <text bytes="20805" sha1="dun7qdoowa6c8pvaq7btncbi2ln0sm5" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.


The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>dun7qdoowa6c8pvaq7btncbi2ln0sm5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816493</id>
      <parentid>2816492</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:57:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816493</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20804" sha1="p7l5pja178ls29tblutoa2bidqzhk26" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>p7l5pja178ls29tblutoa2bidqzhk26</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816494</id>
      <parentid>2816493</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T19:58:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic Weeks */</comment>
      <origin>2816494</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21148" sha1="6sz7mz3fpsffwq30ke0rnwrw9gbhmeo" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>6sz7mz3fpsffwq30ke0rnwrw9gbhmeo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816495</id>
      <parentid>2816494</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T20:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galactic year 65 */</comment>
      <origin>2816495</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21264" sha1="gkwuwdq5d6rwu45j7i8s24zq4ljkle1" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

In the '''Bully Timestamp System''', time is measured using 12-digit [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] &quot;Bully timestamps,&quot; with a new timestamp realized every 3,055 SI seconds (TAI). With 12 hexadecimal digits, the system has a enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:

:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ seconds} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]

== Bully timestamp Divisions ==
The Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

=== First Set ===
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Measures time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Second Set ===
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'': Tracks cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

=== Third Set ===
* ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.

==== Realized vs. Estimated Bully timestamps ====
Each Bully timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an estimate of how elapsed time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Bully time should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 2800 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Galactic Years and Weeks ==
The '''galactic year''', also known as a '''cosmic year''', is the duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy (see Figure 3).

The duration of the galactic year is not a fixed constant, but rather, it depends on the path that a particular star follows as it orbits. Stars closer to the center will orbit much quicker than those on the outer edges.

[[File:Motion_of_Sun,_Earth_and_Moon_around_the_Milky_Way.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 3:]]

Within the context of Bully timestamps, the &quot;bully&quot; galactic year is defined to have a duration of exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps (approximately 213 million years).

=== Galactic Weeks ===
A '''galactic week''' can be thought of as the approximate duration of time required for the Sun to orbit '''6.9 degrees''' around the galactic center (approximately 4.1 million years), so that 52 galactic weeks is equivalent to one galactic year.

The following table (see Figure 4) illustrates the division of one galactic year's worth of Bully timestamps into 52 equal portions. Galactic year &quot;65&quot; begins with Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000 and ends with timestamp 83FF FFFF FFFF.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: Galactic Year 65

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Galactic &lt;br /&gt; Year 65
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}} || {{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}} || {{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}} || {{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}} || {{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}} || {{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}} || {{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}} || {{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}} || {{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}} || {{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}} || {{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}} || {{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;”
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}} || {{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}
|}

==== Galactic year 65 ====
As shown in Figure 5, Galactic Year 65 began 3.8 million years ago during Bully timestamp 8200 0000 0000. At that time, Sagittarius A* would have appeared to sit at the intersection of the Galactic Plane and the Ecliptic.

[[File:Bully_Astronomical_Coordinates.slide_4.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|thumb|Figure 5:]]

* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About Galactic Years and The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

==== The Metonic Cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 280'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 280'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 280'''6 00EA'''
* July 23, 2055 on 8209 280'''8 FF9B'''
* July 23, 2074 on 8209 280'''B FE45'''
* July 23, 2093 on 8209 280'''E FCE6'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 3''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 3''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 3: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 3''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 4''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 4: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 2800 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 4''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 4''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 2800 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]

== The Bully Mnemonic ==

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]</text>
      <sha1>gkwuwdq5d6rwu45j7i8s24zq4ljkle1</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>321771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816469</id>
      <parentid>2816032</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T18:45:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <comment>/* Future Outlook */</comment>
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      <text bytes="91712" sha1="n5x1stkz7nif0ns04ojj7jdc85cgggy" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine      &lt;!-- WikiJournal of Medicine, Science, or Humanities --&gt;
| last1 = Azeez
| orcid1 = 0009-0007-9202-4614
| first1 = Aaqib
| last2 = 
| first2 = 
| last3 = 
| first3 = 
| last4 = 
| first4 = &lt;!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format --&gt;
| et_al = &lt;!-- if there are &gt;9 authors, hyperlink to the list here --&gt;
| affiliation1 = Old Dominion University
| correspondence1 = yonikmalik@gmail.com
| affiliations = institutes / affiliations
| correspondence = email@address.com
| keywords = &lt;!-- up to 6 keywords --&gt;
| license = &lt;!-- default is CC-BY --&gt;
| abstract = This is a narrative review.
}}

TBD 

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka has only recently exited the climaxes of a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis in from 2019 to 2024]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country to this day&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
[source selection process]

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients institutionalized at the Borella mental asylum were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...]  

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]]
Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. 

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] reported measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions]&quot;, which were disrupted by the Boxing Day tsunami. Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature regarding the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health are limited and further research should be done in the field.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media potrayals of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4). Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7). A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been offically approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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TBD 

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka has only recently exited the climaxes of a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis in from 2019 to 2024]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country to this day&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
[source selection process]

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients institutionalized at the Borella mental asylum were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...]  

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]]
Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. 

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] reported measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions]&quot;, which were disrupted by the Boxing Day tsunami. Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature regarding the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health are limited and further research should be done in the field.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media potrayals of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been offically approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Sri Lanka]]</text>
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TBD 

== Introduction ==
Mental health continues to be a critically relevant topic as the island nation has experienced decades of [[w:Black_July|violent ethnic conflict]], terrorist attacks, war crimes, and economic disruptions. Sri Lanka continues to recover from a [[w:Sri_Lankan_economic_crisis_(2019–2024)|severe economic crisis (2019 - 2024)]], a [[w:Sri_Lankan_civil_war|nearly 30-year civil war ending in 2009]], a [[w:2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings|2019 terrorist attack]], and continues to face the ripple effects of the [[w:2004_Boxing_Day_tsunami|2004 Boxing Day tsunami]]. The exact effect these major events have had on mental health in the country is &quot;unknown&quot;, but the statistics remain alarming despite a declining trend.

Suicide rates in the country during the mid-1990s were the second-highest in the world with ingesting toxic products being the main suicide method. Despite the decline in suicide numbers since then—possibly attributed to Sri Lanka's ban on toxic products—evidence from a 2023 study reports an upward trend in suicide through hanging from 2016 to 2021—independent of the [[w:COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sri_Lanka|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Several risk factors for suicide, such as poverty and economic instability, are still prevalent and even increasing in the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakse|first=Thilini|last2=Silva|first2=Tharuka|last3=Hettiarachchi|first3=Nirosha Madhuwanthi|last4=Gunnell|first4=David|last5=Metcalfe|first5=Chris|last6=Spittal|first6=Matthew J.|last7=Knipe|first7=Duleeka|date=2023-01-19|title=The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic and Lockdowns on Self-Poisoning and Suicide in Sri Lanka: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9914278/|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=20|issue=3|pages=1833|doi=10.3390/ijerph20031833|issn=1660-4601|pmc=9914278|pmid=36767200}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Methods ==
[source selection process]

==Historical Development of Mental Health Services==

In the 1800s, established care for mental health began shifting primarily from indigenous practices, mainly derived from [[w:Ayurveda|Ayurveda medicine]], [[w:Siddha_medicine|Siddha medicine]], and [[w:Unani_medicine|Unani medicine]], to a Western model&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Gambheera, H. (2011). [https://www.saarcpsychiatry.com/viewText?chapter=c6 The evolution of psychiatric services in Sri Lanka]. South Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 2(1), 25–27.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|title=Social Psychiatry in Sri Lanka|last=Baminiwatta|first=Anuradha|last2=Williams|first2=Shehan|date=2025|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-96-8078-8|editor-last=Arafat|editor-first=S. M. Yasir|location=Singapore|pages=141–158|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-981-96-8078-8_7|editor-last2=Singh|editor-first2=Amit|editor-last3=Kar|editor-first3=Sujita Kumar}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [pull more info from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342354982_Development_of_civil_commitment_statutes_laws_of_involuntary_detention_and_treatment_in_Sri_Lanka_a_historical_review maybe?] 

=== Adoption of a Western-based mental healthcare model and issuances of ordinances ===
In 1839, [[w:James_Alexander_Stewart-Mackenzie|James Alexander Stewart-Mackenzie]], the 7th Governor of British Ceylon, released the Lunacy Ordinance, authorizing municipal authorities to create lunatic asylums for the mentally ill in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=6&amp;Itemid=125&amp;lang=en|title=History - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ordinance was concerned with the legal frameworks of detaining individuals considered dangerous to others or individuals falsely presenting themselves as mentally ill, and not on medical treatments to alleviate the conditions of detained individuals. UK psychiatrist [[w:Edward_Mapother|Edward Mapother]] critiqued the ordinance during his 1937 inspection of British Ceylon's mental health institutions in a series of reports titled ''A Disgrace to a Civilised Community'', remarking that the ordinance &quot;[did] not seem to have contemplated treatment as a contingency to be considered&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Permeable walls: historical perspectives on hospital and asylum visiting|date=2009|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=978-90-420-2599-8|editor-last=Mooney|editor-first=Graham|series=Clio medica|location=Amsterdam New York, NY|editor-last2=Reinarz|editor-first2=Jonathan}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1840, the 1839 Ordinance was repealed and replaced by the 1840 Ordinance. The 1839 Ordinance was almost identical to the 1840 Ordinance, except the removal of two previous requirements: the requirement for official medical diagnoses of the mentally insane and the mandate to maintain adequate staff-to-patient ratios within lunatic asylums&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. de|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. L.|last3=Mendis|first3=T. S. S.|last4=Abhayanayaka|first4=C.|date=2024-12-31|title=The development of laws related to the disposal of forensic patients in Sri Lanka: A historical review|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=15|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v15i2.8569|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

In 1873, a third Ordinance was released. It included linguistic changes, where the term, &quot;insane&quot;, was replaced with &quot;of unsound mind&quot;. The Ordinance also gave more power to medical professionals in determining insanity diagnoses, and more power to detainees in appealing their commitment to the mental asylum. Despite this Ordinance being the most comprehensive outlook on mental healthcare in the country at the time, the legal frameworks behind the detainment of the criminally insane were left identical to previous ordinances&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;.

=== Development of mental asylums ===
At the time the 1839 ordinance was released, mentally ill patients were placed either in prisons throughout the country or leprosy hospitals, such as the [[w:Hendala_Leprosy_Hospital|Hendala Leprosy Hospital]] in the Gampaha district&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;. After the creation of the first mental asylum in Borella in 1846, patients from the Hendala Leprosy Hospital were transferred to the institute in Borella. Overcrowding soon became an issue and patients institutionalized at the Borella mental asylum were sent to prisons across the country. [[File:Edward Mapother.jpg|thumb|A portrait taken of Edward Mapother during his time working at [[w:Maudsley_Hospital|Maudsley Hospital]] in London.
]]

As medical institutions were being made to house the mentally insane, another mental asylum was created in the [[w:Cinnamon_Gardens|Cinnamon Gardens]] area of Colombo in 1884, though this mental asylum faced overcrowding in just one year&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. Treatment in these asylums was limited to occupational and protection therapy, failing to provide treatment for the root causes of the mental disorders.

In 1926, the Angoda Mental Hospital was established, scantily alleviating the severe overcrowding issues that were plaguing the preceding mental asylums. Despite the addition of 1,700 beds to the facility, treatment was still vastly limited and the patients were left in significantly poor conditions. 

=== Edward Mapother's 1937 inspection of British Ceylon ===
Edward Mapother was born in Dublin, Ireland, on July 12, 1881 and moved to London when he was 7 years old&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Madness to mental illness: a history of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|last=Bewley|first=Thomas|date=2008|publisher=RCPsych Publications ; Distributed in North America by Balogh International|isbn=978-1-904671-35-0|location=London : [S.l.]}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother attained his M.D. in 1908. While Mapother was the Medical Superintendent of Maudsley Hospital in London, England, he was invited to inspect British Ceylon's mental health institutions by Dr S. T. Gunasekara, the first Medical Director of British Ceylon&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

In Mapother's visit, he commented that the Angoda Mental Hospital had the atmosphere of &quot;a prison that is neglected and dilapidated&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Overcrowding was still a major issue, with the institute hosting 3,000 patients—more than double the intended capacity. Patients were sleeping on mats and were clearly out of reach of adequate treatment. Mapother also noted that only 4% of public health expenditure in the country was being set for hospitals, drawing a stark comparison to London's 25%&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother offered a vivid and grim account of the hospital in his reports:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The floor, roof and walls of each cell consist alike of drab cement without any attempt at colouring or decoration. High up in one wall is a small window with stout iron bars. In the floor is a large hole into which the patient may pass his motion and urine. These cells are incompletely divided from one another by a partition which does not reach the roof so that the noise and stink from any one cell may reach at least all the others of the same row. Into these empty cells I was informed that the most noisy and troublesome patients in the hospital; were turned at night completely naked. The doors of the cell contain no observation window, and considering the violent character of many of these patients there is every ground for believing that the doors are rarely opened in the night by the solitary attendant on duty. It needs little imagination to picture the suffering of any patient in an early stage of bodily illness passing a night under such conditions, a situation which must frequently arise. I am told that the noise proceeding from this building is like that on a bad night in a menagerie&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Mapother proposed a series of reinforcements to the legal, institutional, and medical frameworks of mental health care in British Ceylon. This included the decentralization of the psychiatric services, a reworking of the Lunacy Ordinance to incorporate treatment into the legal framework, and the establishment of a separate service of medical professionals dedicated to psychiatry. Mapother's recommendations led to several of the best local medical professionals to be sent to London for extensive training in psychiatry, while nurses from England were sent to British Ceylon to supervise hospital operations and train local staff&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;.

On August 25, 1938, the Executive Committee of Health approved the strategies proposed by Mapother, though the Government was unable to fully implement all of Mapother's interventions due to the 'heavy cost'. In fact, the Government decided to forego one of his proposals, which was the suggestion of a &quot;Visiting Committee&quot;. This committee was tasked to &quot;meet at the hospital, carry out inspections, and make recommendations&quot; to the Executive Committee of Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. The Government realized that deficiencies in their mental healthcare system could prove to be &quot;costly&quot; for their reputation. Mapother was reportedly enraged when he found out. Mapother intended to contact the Secretary of State regarding the &quot;distortion&quot; of his plans, but was interrupted by events preluding to [[w:World_War_II|World War II]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;. Mapother passed away on March 20, 1940, without materializing his follow-up plans.

=== Post-Mapother developments and further innovations ===
[[File:Sri Lanka districts Colombo.svg|thumb|A map of Sri Lanka highlighting the Colombo District, where the capital is located. 
|right|250px]]Mapother's insights on the mental healthcare structure in British Ceylon proved to be the catalyst of massive renovations. In 1939, the first outpatient clinic was established in the [[w:National_Hospital_of_Sri_Lanka|National Hospital of Sri Lanka]] in Colombo. The first trained Ceylonese psychiatrists began practice in the 1940s, leading to the establishment of the first neuropsychiatric clinic in Colombo in 1943. Treatments for the mentally ill improved dramatically, as protectional therapy expanded to [[w:insulin_shock_therapy|insulin shock therapy]] and [[w:Electroconvulsive_therapy|cardiazol convulsive therapy]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kathriarachchi|first=Samudra T.|last2=Seneviratne|first2=V. Lakmi|last3=Amarakoon|first3=Luckshika|date=2019-06|title=Development of Mental Health Care in Sri Lanka: Lessons Learned|url=https://journals.lww.com/tpsy/fulltext/2019/33020/development_of_mental_health_care_in_sri_lanka_.1.aspx|journal=Taiwanese Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=33|issue=2|pages=55|doi=10.4103/TPSY.TPSY_15_19|issn=1028-3684}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Mapother's advocation for the decentralization of services were further honored through the 1947 establishment of a first child guidance clinic in Colombo General Hospital&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. 

In 1948, British Ceylon was granted independence from the British after the [[w:Sri_Lankan_independence_movement|Sri Lankan independence movement]]. Changes in the mental healthcare structure were not immediate following independence, but rapid expansions of mental healthcare services were still ongoing. 

The following decades saw positive institutional developments, such as the creation of a second hospital in [[w:Mulleriyawa|Mulleriyawa]] in 1957, and the creation of a psychiatric inpatient unit in Colombo General Hospital in 1967—effectively granting the city of Colombo the luxury of hosting the top psychiatric care in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|title=Mental Health System Development in Sri Lanka|last=Minas|first=Harry|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Hall|first3=Teresa|date=2017|publisher=Springer US|isbn=978-1-4899-7997-1|editor-last=Minas|editor-first=Harry|location=Boston, MA|pages=59–77|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-7999-5_4|editor-last2=Lewis|editor-first2=Milton}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The 1950s was also the start of psychopharmacological innovations, with the introduction of [[w:Lithium_(medication)|lithium]] and long-acting injectable antipsychotics ([[w:Depot_injection|depot]] [[w:Antipsychotic|neuroleptics]]) in the succeeding years&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;. Additionally, the number of public psychiatrist positions increased by 400% from 1953 to 1967&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

After 1960, mental health services were being established beyond the capital to other cities in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

In 1980, the [[w:Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medicine|Postgraduate Institute of Medicine]] began a program where students would enroll in a 5-year medical course and attain an MD in psychiatry, curbing the need for Sri Lankan medical students to be sent abroad to complete their training. Many of the medical students sent abroad for training never returned to Sri Lanka to practice, resulting in a &quot;1:500,000 to 1000,000&quot; ratio of psychiatrists to patients on &quot;most occasions&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.

=== Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956 ===
In 1956, the 1873 Ordinance was revised a second time and renamed the &quot;Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Another linguistic development is seen with the new revision as &quot;lunacy&quot; was replaced with &quot;mental disease&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. The Ordinance paved the way for community-based services to be delivered to patients closer to their residences rather than solely allocating services to just hospitals. This led to the creation of a [[w:WHO|WHO]]-backed community clinic near the [[w:University_of_Colombo|University of Colombo]] in the 1970s, where the focus was to eventually ease patients in the Angoda Mental Hospital back into the general population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;.

=== Developments from the 1990s ===
The 1990s and onwards saw further positive developments in framing the mental healthcare system, including the establishment of the [https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=featured&amp;Itemid=101&amp;lang=en Directorate of Mental Health] in 1998. The Directorate of Mental Health is a part of the [[w:Ministry_of_Health_(Sri_Lanka)|Ministry of Health]] who is responsible for the monitoring and implementation of mental health programs across the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?lang=en|title=Home - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  As of 2025, the current director of the Directorate of Mental Health is Dr. Chithramalee de Silva&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;.

On November 11, 2005, the Mental Health Policy was approved by the Government of Sri Lanka, advocating for establishments of more de-centralized, community-based mental health services across the country beyond the capital (Colombo). The policy aimed to concisely define the rigorous standards needed to be completed for each respected medical professional, including psychiatrists and clinical psychologists&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rajapakshe|first=Onali Bimalka Wickramaseckara|last2=Mohan|first2=Mohapradeep|last3=Singh|first3=Swaran Preet|date=2023-05|title=Development of adolescent mental health services in Sri Lanka|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10895478/|journal=BJPsych international|volume=20|issue=2|pages=41–43|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.32|issn=2056-4740|pmc=10895478|pmid=38414998}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The policy also included a new position, the &quot;Medical Officer of Mental Health&quot;, who oversees and assists in the implementation of community-based mental health services&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. This same year, the Sri Lankan government began implementing psychological services in state institutions, such as the military&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.  

In 2007, the National Mental Health Advisory Council (NMHAC) was created to serve as an 'advisory' board for the Ministry of Health on what actions should be executed by the Directorate of Mental Health&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://mentalhealth.health.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=9&amp;Itemid=220&amp;lang=en|title=Introduction - Directorate of Mental Health|website=mentalhealth.health.gov.lk|access-date=2025-05-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In 2008, the Angoda Mental Hospital was restructured as the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Modern-day Sri Lanka ===
[[File:Feeding Children in Sri Lanka.jpg|left|thumb|Despite the noteworthy improvements in mental healthcare services in recent decades, mental health remains a significant issue due to rising poverty. ]]
As of 2025, the Mental Health Act (mental health legislation) has been undergoing development since 2005 and is currently awaiting to be considered for the final stage of approval. This is expected to replace the 1956 Mental Health Ordinance&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;.

Currently, there are 7 tertiary care hospitals, 61 adult patient units, 3 child inpatient units, and 1 forensic unit. The [[w:Lady_Ridgeway_Hospital_for_Children|Lady Ridgeway Hospital]] in Colombo and the Sirimavo Bandaranayke Specialized Children Hospital in Kandy are tailored towards alleviating children with [[w:Learning_disability|SLD]], [[w:ADHD|ADHD]], [[w:Autism_Spectrum_Disorder|ASD]] and family support for diagnosed children. As of 2017, 22 rehabilitation centers exist through the country, including 7 alcohol rehab centers&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. [expand more on SL Gov't efforts here...]  

Despite the impressive advancements in mental healthcare in the last couple of decades, Sri Lanka still suffers significant mental health issues due to increasing poverty levels in the country. The [[w:World_Bank|World Bank]] reported that [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/04/08/eesc-a08.html the poverty levels in Sri Lanka increased from 11% in 2019 to 26% in 2024], with 60% of Sri Lankan households facing &quot;decreased incomes&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Lakhtakia, Shruti, Atapattu Mudiyanselage, Udahiruni Shashadari Atapat, Walker, Richard Ancrum. ''Sri Lanka Development Update - Bridge to Recovery (English).'' Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099634104012434919&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;. This was churned by Sri Lanka's excessive foreign debt, economic troubles stemming from [[w:Gotabaya_Rajapaksa|Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]'s presidential term, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the [[w:Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine|ongoing invasion of Ukraine by Russia (2022)]].  

According to [[w:NYU|New York University]] graduate student [https://gc-cuny.academia.edu/NadiaAugustyniak Nadia Augustyniak] in her 2025 overview of Sri Lanka's public mental healthcare system, poverty-induced financial precarity remains a major obstacle to receiving access to mental healthcare services. Even though trauma from adverse weather and conflict is deleterious to mental health, issues originating from every-day struggles, especially struggles related to poverty, could arguably play a more significant role&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

== Impact of Conflicts, Terrorism, Political Instability &amp; Natural Disasters ==

=== Sri Lankan Civil War ===
The '''Sri Lankan Civil War''' was a domestic conflict that took place between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (abbreviated as the ''LTTE),'' a militant group formed in the 1970s as a result of rising tensions between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil population. The group is considered a terrorist organization&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.start.umd.edu/baad/database/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-ltte-1998.html|title=BAAD - Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) - 1998 {{!}} START.umd.edu|website=www.start.umd.edu|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/liberation-tigers-tamil-eelam-aka-tamil-tigers-sri-lanka-separatists|title=Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (aka Tamil Tigers) (Sri Lanka, separatists) {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations|last=Bhattacharji|first=Preeti|website=www.cfr.org|language=en|access-date=2025-06-09}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Through brutal massacres, assassinations, and suicide bombings, the LTTE waged decades of terror which led to civilian displacement, infrastructure collapse, and the reduction of mental health services available in the northern region.[[File:DFID-funded, UNHCR emergency shelter tents, in the IDP camp at Menik Farm, Sri Lanka (3694081492).jpg|thumb|350x350px|An IDP camp in Menik Farm, Sri Lanka in 2009 ([https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19703826 now closed]). Suicide rates in IDP camps were three times the general population.]]The civil war mainly affected the northeastern portion of the country, including the [[w:Vanni_(Sri_Lanka)|Vanni region]]. The conflict caused mass destruction to local mental healthcare facilities. Local residents described the conflict with the phrase ''varthayal varnicca mudiyathavai'', roughly translating into English as 'beyond description by words'&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2003, only two psychiatrists were found in the region, operating on extremely limited resources and further deepening long-term trauma and mental health deterioration in the population&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. 

In 2002, the humanitarian organization [https://www.msf.org/ Médecins Sans Frontières] (MSF) performed an investigation of mental health needs in the [[w:Vavuniya|Vavuniya]] area, the site of intense conflict during the civil war (including the [[w:1985_Vavuniya_massacre|1985 Vavuniya massacre]]), and found that many of the residents suffered from high suicide rates, alcohol abuse, domestic violence, grief, and a &quot;sense of ‘learnt helplessness’&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. A team from the University of Konstanz in Germany found that 92% of grade school children in the region were exposed to &quot;combat, shelling, and witnessing the death of loved ones&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 
[[File:Tractors. Jan 2009 displacement in the Vanni.jpg|left|thumb|350x350px|Displaced civilians originating from the Kilinochchi and Mullaitivu Districts due to military campaigns by the Sri Lankan military (January 2009). Displaced civilians had to avoid both the atrocities committed by the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government.]]
Accusation of war crimes towards [[w:War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war|the Sri Lankan government]] have been documented by various external organizations, despite the government's attempts at removing any [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_p1TfTguW0 mentions] or [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtm54Y9USEg investigations] of it&lt;ref&gt;See also [[w:Sexual violence in the Sri Lankan civil war]].&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2009 HRW report stated that the Sri Lankan government assumed native Tamil population residing in war zones to be &quot;siding with the LTTE and [therefore, were] treated as combatants&quot;, leading to indiscriminate shillings and massacres of civilians&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2009-02-19|title=War on the Displaced|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2009/02/19/war-displaced/sri-lankan-army-and-ltte-abuses-against-civilians-vanni|journal=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Alongside the oppression by the Sri Lankan military, the Vanni population also endured the brutal theatrics of the LTTE, which recruited men, women, and even children with minimal training, effectively rendering them cannon fodder. 

Over 200,000 Tamil civilians were moved into [[w:Internally_displaced_persons_in_Sri_Lanka|designated displacement camps during the war]], where conditions were abysmal&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The suicide rate in these displacement camps were three times the community-level (2002), with a ratio of 103.5 per 10,000 compared to the Sri Lankan general population's rate of 37.5 per 10,000. Almost all suicide attempts involved poisonous substances. Other forms of violence included domestic violence and child abuse. Local health officials in Vavuniya admitted that mental health concerns were a major problem, but were unable to address these concerns due to a lack of resources and support from the government. During the [[wikipedia:Sri_Lankan_civil_war#2002_peace_process_(2002%E2%80%932006)|brief 2002 ceasefire]], the MSF implemented a &quot;community-based programme&quot; which included &quot;increasing awareness, community strengthening, reinforcing coping-strategies for long-term war-affected communities, and counselling&quot;. The MSF also advocated for restrictions of poisonous substances due to the suicide attempts, and stressed that &quot;much more [than resettlement]&quot; would need to be done to help alleviate the psychological pain the northern population had faced&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=de Jong|first=Kaz|last2=Mulhern|first2=Maureen|last3=Ford|first3=Nathan|last4=Simpson|first4=Isabel|last5=Swan|first5=Alison|last6=van der Kam|first6=Saskia|date=2002-04|title=Psychological trauma of the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602084209|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=359|issue=9316|pages=1517–1518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08420-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The ceasefire ended in 2006 and led to the [[w:Eelam_War_IV|final phase of the civil war]], eventually ending in 2009 with the [[w:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velupillai_Prabhakaran#Sri_Lankan_Army_Northern_offensive_and_death|death of the LTTE's leader]]. 

'''Post-war'''
[[File:Puttalam district.svg|left|thumb|Puttalam District, unlike its northern counterparts, was largely spared from the intense conflict, possibly explaining the lower rates of common mental disorders (CMDs).]]
The first district-wide cross-sectional multistage cluster sample survey was conducted in the [[w:Jaffna_District|Jaffna District]] shortly after the war ended. The study's sample included 1517 households and 2 internally displaced peoples camps. With a response rate of 92%, the study found that symptoms for PTSD were found in 7% of participants, symptoms of anxiety were found in 32.6% of participants, and symptoms of depression were found in 22.2% of participants. 2% of respondents were currently placed in internally displaced peoples camps at the time of the study, 29.5% were freshly resettled from the internally displaced peoples camps, and the rest of the participants (68.5%) were never placed into camps. In comparison to residents who were never placed into camps, participants that were actively held in camps tend to report more symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression. The researchers also found that women were especially vulnerable to deteriorating mental health conditions. This was explained by two factors: women having to assume the roles of both the father and the mother in the family setting after the, either voluntary or forced, departure of the husband to war, and sexist violence&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Husain|first=Farah|last2=Anderson|first2=Mark|last3=Lopes Cardozo|first3=Barbara|last4=Becknell|first4=Kristin|last5=Blanton|first5=Curtis|last6=Araki|first6=Diane|last7=Kottegoda Vithana|first7=Eeshara|date=2011-08-03|title=Prevalence of War-Related Mental Health Conditions and Association With Displacement Status in Postwar Jaffna District, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1052|journal=JAMA|volume=306|issue=5|pages=522–531|doi=10.1001/jama.2011.1052|issn=0098-7484}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study on adult patients in [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232631/ primary care settings] (divisional hospitals, primary medical care units) found major depression to be significantly higher in females (5.1%) than males (3.6%), bolstering the observation seen in the 2009 study&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senarath|first=Upul|last2=Wickramage|first2=Kolitha|last3=Peiris|first3=Sharika Lasanthi|date=2014-03-24|title=Prevalence of depression and its associated factors among patients attending primary care settings in the post-conflict Northern Province in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|journal=BMC Psychiatry|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=85|doi=10.1186/1471-244X-14-85|issn=1471-244X|pmc=3987835|pmid=24661436}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Muslims in Northern Sri Lanka during the conflict also faced violence and discrimination, most notably [[w:Expulsion_of_Muslims_from_the_Northern_Province_of_Sri_Lanka|the October 1990 expulsion of Muslims from the North to the Puttalam District or Jaffna]] and the [[w:Kattankudy_mosque_massacre|1990 Kattankudy mosque massacre]]. The only study testing the displaced Muslim population post-civil war was completed in 2011, where a cross-sectional survey of 450 internally displaced people or people born into displacement (ages 18 - 65) revealed 18.8% of the sample suffering from common mental health disorders (CMD), including [[w:Somatoform_disorder|somatoform disorder]] (14%), &quot;other depressive syndromes&quot; (7.3%), major depression (5.1%), and anxiety disorder (2.8%). The percentages found in this study for somatoform disorder and major depression were &quot;considerably higher&quot; than the national percentages, though the researchers noted that the prevalence of CMD was lower in comparison to other countries marred with conflict, including Palestine (40.3%) and Ethiopia (27.8%). The researchers explained that the lower rate of CMD may be attributed to the [[w:Puttalam_District|serenity of the post-settlement destination]], as conflict was mainly centered in the North and East. In contrast to earlier findings, this study did not observe a higher prevalence of CMDs among women, although increased rates of somatoform disorders were noted (though the researchers did not show the data behind this)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Siriwardhana|first=Chesmal|last2=Adikari|first2=Anushka|last3=Pannala|first3=Gayani|last4=Siribaddana|first4=Sisira|last5=Abas|first5=Melanie|last6=Sumathipala|first6=Athula|last7=Stewart|first7=Robert|date=2013-05-22|title=Prolonged Internal Displacement and Common Mental Disorders in Sri Lanka: The COMRAID Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=5|pages=e64742|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0064742|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3661540|pmid=23717656}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Research on the mental state of combatants has been limited, but a post-war 2009 study done between soldiers of the [[w:Sri_Lanka_Army_Special_Forces_Regiment|Special Forces]] and regular soldiers showed higher levels of exposure to traumatic events for units of the Special Forces, yet the former exhibited significantly less symptoms of CMDs compared to the latter. The authors of this study, [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=cVKEBdwAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao Raveen Hanwella] and [https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=ZRj74qMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=sra Varuni de Silva], offers the camaraderie of the unit as an explanation for the discrepancy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|date=2012-08|title=Mental health of Special Forces personnel deployed in battle|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038567|journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology|volume=47|issue=8|pages=1343–1351|doi=10.1007/s00127-011-0442-0|issn=1433-9285|pmid=22038567}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A follow-up study was completed by the pair (with the addition of former Director-General of the Health Services of the Sri Lanka Navy [[w:Nicholas_Jayasekera|Nicholas Jayasekera]]), where the findings were similar, though the statistically significant bridge between the two cohorts in the previous study evaporated in the follow-up study. This may be due to the significant decline in mental health problems observed in the regular unit forces, potentially reflecting resilience in the aftermath of jarring conflict&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=Jayasekera|first2=Nicholas E. L. W.|last3=Silva|first3=Varuni A. de|date=2014-09-25|title=Mental Health Status of Sri Lanka Navy Personnel Three Years after End of Combat Operations: A Follow Up Study|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108113|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108113|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4177866|pmid=25254557}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Amputees or soldiers with spinal injuries exhibited drastically different numbers, with approximately 40% of nearly 100 male-veterans in a post-war 2009 study displaying PTSD-like symptoms&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Abeyasinghe|first=N. L.|last2=de Zoysa|first2=P.|last3=Bandara|first3=K.M.K.C.|last4=Bartholameuz|first4=N. A.|last5=Bandara|first5=J. M.U.J.|date=2012-05-01|title=The prevalence of symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among soldiers with amputation of a limb or spinal injury: A report from a rehabilitation centre in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|journal=Psychology, Health &amp; Medicine|volume=17|issue=3|pages=376–381|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.608805|issn=1354-8506|pmid=21942815}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

About a decade after the conflict ceased, a few notable studies have emerged to help guide understanding on the longer-term mental health effects on victims of the civil war. 

From July 2019 to October 2020, a study was conducted on 585 local adolescents (ages 12-19) in the Vavuniya district revealed that despite 15.6% of the statistic having faced one or more war-related events, only 3.9% of the participants had moderate - severe depression. In addition to considerably low depression rates, only 5.7% of participants age 17+ were found to have moderate - severe hopelessness&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dissanayake|first=Lasith|last2=Jabir|first2=Sameeha|last3=Shepherd|first3=Thomas|last4=Helliwell|first4=Toby|last5=Selvaratnam|first5=Lavan|last6=Jayaweera|first6=Kaushalya|last7=Abeysinghe|first7=Nihal|last8=Mallen|first8=Christian|last9=Sumathipala|first9=Athula|date=2023-08-31|title=The aftermath of war; mental health, substance use and their correlates with social support and resilience among adolescents in a post-conflict region of Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health|language=en|volume=17|issue=1|pages=101|doi=10.1186/s13034-023-00648-1|issn=1753-2000|pmc=10472617|pmid=37653394}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The authors referenced a 2010 observation by psychiatrist [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/author/daya-somasundaram Daya Somasundaram], who noted that many Tamil IDPs exhibited &quot;remarkable resilience and post-traumatic growth&quot; after the civil war—an outcome he attributed to the close-knit, family-centered nature of Tamil communities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=Daya|date=2010-07-28|title=Collective trauma in the Vanni- a qualitative inquiry into the mental health of the internally displaced due to the civil war in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=4|issue=1|pages=22|doi=10.1186/1752-4458-4-22|issn=1752-4458|pmc=2923106|pmid=20667090}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Findings originating from a 2019 study undertook by several faculty members from the University of Kelaniya, the University of Jaffna, the [[w:Gampaha_Wickramarachchi_University_of_Indigenous_Medicine|Gampaha Wickramarachchi University of Indigenous Medicine]], and the [https://onur.gov.lk/ Office for National Unity and Reconciliation (ONUR)] in Jaffna, found contrasting statistics. Out of 336 participants from districts that faced significant ramifications of the conflict (Jaffna, Kilinochchi, Mullaithivu, Vavuniya, and Mannar districts), 50.5% had extreme anxiety symptoms and 36.5% exhibited &quot;extremely severe&quot; symptoms of depression. 92.5% of families in the sample experienced suicidal ideation, with an observed negative correlation between trauma exposure and life satisfaction with families. Drug abuse (86.2%) and alcohol abuse (84.5%) were the two highest problematic behaviors recorded on a community-level, suggesting that the negative consequences of the civil war still persist, possibly on a substantial scale than previously recognized, in Tamil communities in the North&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thamotharampillai|first=Umaharan|last2=Perera|first2=Ruwanthi|last3=Wickremasinghe|first3=Rajitha|last4=Williams|first4=Shehan|last5=Vijayasangar|first5=Thedsanamoorthy|last6=Sivatharsan|first6=Balasubramaniam|last7=Hilbert|first7=Vanceline|last8=Somasundaram|first8=Daya|date=2025-05-06|title=Collective Trauma- Psychosocial consequences of war in northern Sri Lanka 10 years on, a mixed methods study|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000696|journal=SSM - Mental Health|pages=100457|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100457|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Further research should be conducted in this field. 

In 2019, [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/R-M-M-Monaragala-2087692299 Dr. R. M. M. Monaragala] conducted a study on 1,845 soldiers with combat experience, finding that 3.9% of the sample suffered from PTSD. Dr. Monaragala noted that &quot;probable depression, fatigue, aggression, and family history of mental disorder&quot; were correlative of PTSD presence. He suggested that &quot;screening and psychosocial intervention&quot; were recommended avenues to alleviate CMDs of former combatants&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Monaragala|first=R. M. M.|date=2024-04-19|title=Exploring the effects of the past civil war in terms of the prevalence and associating factors of PTSD|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en-US|volume=14|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v14i2.8465|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami ===
The '''2004 Boxing Day Tsunami''' was a natural disaster where a tsunami spawned off a 9.2–9.3 magnitude earthquake off the coast of Aceh in Indonesia on December 26.  The tsunami greatly affected the coastlines of the country, with the death toll reaching to about 35,000 deaths. In addition, 90,000 houses were destroyed and 516,000 people were forced to migrate due to severe infrastructural damage&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;. It stands as the [http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/tsunami_relief/119821.htm worst natural disaster to have ever hit Sri Lanka].  
[[File:Tsunami relief 2004 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Volunteers from [[w:Royal_College,_Colombo|Royal College in Colombo]] assisting in tsunami relief efforts (Sarvodaya Headquaters, Moratuwa).]]
A survey conducted on schoolchildren (ages 8-14) in Manadkadu (Tamil-majority village in the northern coast), [[w:Kosgoda|Kosgoda]] (western coast), and [[w:Galle|Galle]] (southern coast), just a few weeks after the tsunami hit Sri Lanka, revealed that 33.8%, 13.9%, and 38.8% of children interviewed exhibited signs of PTSD (according to the DSM-IV's criteria), respectively (minus the time criteria, as the DSM-IV does not permit diagnosis of PTSD within 4 weeks of a traumatic incident). The loss of family members and exposure to previously traumatic incidents seem to highly correlate with PTSD development&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Neuner|first=Frank|last2=Schauer|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Ruf|first4=Martina|last5=Elbert|first5=Thomas|date=2006|title=Post-tsunami stress: A study of posttraumatic stress disorder in children living in three severely affected regions in Sri Lanka|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jts.20121|journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=339–347|doi=10.1002/jts.20121|issn=1573-6598}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Many victims in the Jaffna area suffered with &quot;[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/prolonged-grief-disorder pathological grief], phobias, depression and PTSD&quot; post-tsunami. Schizophrenia in the Jaffna Tamil community, which had already suffered elevated prevalence of PTSD prior to the tsunami, had worsened—highlighting the need for specialized care in response to cumulative exposures to chronic and acute traumas. In a study published in the journal ''International Psychiatry'' (2006), Jaffna-based researchers noted that, contrary to their initial inclinations, there was not a &quot;large[r] (than expected) rise in [the] number of people&quot; seeking mental health support 3 months after the tsunami. However, 10 months after the disaster, the researchers anticipated that &quot;more psychiatric disorders&quot; would emerge due to &quot;very little rebuilding [efforts]&quot; and an apparent &quot;unfairness in the aid system&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Somasundaram|first=D. J.|last2=Yoganathan|first2=S.|last3=Ganesvaran|first3=T.|date=1993-09|title=Schizophrenia in northern Sri Lanka|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7828234|journal=The Ceylon Medical Journal..|volume=38|issue=3|pages=131–135|issn=0009-0875|pmid=7828234}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Danvers|first=K.|last2=Sivayokan|first2=S.|last3=Somasundaram|first3=D. J.|last4=Sivashankar|first4=R.|date=2006-07|title=Ten months on: qualitative assessment of psychosocial issues in northern Sri Lanka following the tsunami|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6734678/|journal=International Psychiatry: Bulletin of the Board of International Affairs of the Royal College of Psychiatrists|volume=3|issue=3|pages=5–8|issn=1749-3676|pmc=6734678|pmid=31507850}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

At the February 2005 ''After the Tsunami: Mental Health Challenges to the Community for Today and Tomorrow'' conference in Thailand, [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chandanie-Hewage Dr. Chandanie Hewage] of the [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] reported measures taken to assist the affected were &quot;not coordinated&quot; due to poor &quot;communication systems and road [conditions]&quot;, which were disrupted by the Boxing Day tsunami. Regardless, efforts were continued by the government and health professionals to alleviate the struggles the victims were facing, including the psychological ramifications of the disaster. 

Several issues in the delivery of these services were highlighted by Dr. Hewage, including poor maintenance of health records, lack of awareness on drug consumption by the patients themselves, and shortages of health professionals. Dr. Hewage points out that personnel had &quot;little&quot; mental health training prior to the disaster, suggesting increased &quot;research&quot; and adequate &quot;provision[ing] and training of staff&quot; in the long-term&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Jonathan R. T.|date=2006|title=Foreword. After the tsunami: mental health challenges to the community for today and tomorrow|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16602809|journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=67 Suppl 2|pages=3–8|issn=0160-6689|pmid=16602809}}&lt;/ref&gt;. With inadequate documentation, no systematic procedures in place, and insufficient personnel, tsunami victims with mental health concerns may not receive the services they need, further compacting neuropsychological ailments.  

In 2008 (about 3-4 years after the tsunami), researchers in the hard-hit village of [[w:Peraliya|Peraliya]] (Galle District) found that from a sample of approximately 90 adults, 25% suffered from moderate–severe PTSD, with women scoring &quot;above the cut-off for anxiety&quot; and reporting more &quot;somatic symptoms&quot;, though researchers inferred that the PTSD rate found in the study may be influenced by war or economic hardship&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hollifield|first=Michael|last2=Hewage|first2=Chandanie|last3=Gunawardena|first3=Charlotte N.|last4=Kodituwakku|first4=Piyadasa|last5=Bopagoda|first5=Kalum|last6=Weerarathnege|first6=Krishantha|last7=Group|first7=International Post-Tsunami Study|date=2008-01|title=Symptoms and coping in Sri Lanka 20–21 months after the 2004 tsunami|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/symptoms-and-coping-in-sri-lanka-2021-months-after-the-2004-tsunami/CB33752239AF362A0BFD55B3668D60B0|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=192|issue=1|pages=39–44|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.107.038422|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

=== 2019 Easter Bombings ===
The '''2019 Easter Bombings''' were a series of coordinated attacks perpetrated by the Islamic extremist group, [[w:National_Thowheeth_Jama'ath|National Thowheeth Jama'ath]], on April 21, 2019. The attack targeted three churches and three hotels in the Colombo area, killing nearly 300 people and injuring over 500. The attack was also attributed to the incompetency of the Sri Lankan government, who ignored [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-48044636 multiple warnings regarding the attacks]. The attacks negatively affected the Sri Lankan Catholic community and further weakened relations between the major religious groups&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

In the aftermath of the attacks, professionals in the [[w:Gampaha_District|Gampaha District]] resorted to &quot;low-cost methodological&quot; responses to children and adolescents affected by the attack as a &quot;severe shortage&quot; of children and adolescent mental health experts were exposed&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chandradasa|first=Miyuru|last2=Rathnayake|first2=Layani C|last3=Rowel|first3=Madushi|last4=Fernando|first4=Lalin|date=2020-06-01|title=Early phase child and adolescent psychiatry response after mass trauma: Lessons learned from the Easter Sunday attack in Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020913314|journal=International Journal of Social Psychiatry|language=EN|volume=66|issue=4|pages=331–334|doi=10.1177/0020764020913314|issn=0020-7640}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In a qualitative study of 8 survivors of the attacks receiving grief counseling, [[w:University_of_Ruhuna|University of Ruhuna]] assistant professor [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virasha-Godakanda Virasha Godakanda] observed that 70% of the sample size expressed &quot;doubts&quot; in adequate mental health interventions from the government, reducing the quality of such services. Professor Godakanda strongly endorsed for &quot;culturally-sensitive&quot; programs, a diversity in therapeutic approaches (including nature-based therapy), and &quot;prolonged investigations&quot; to track developments in mental health resources and impacts of implemented interventions&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Godakanda|first=Virasha|date=2025-01-29|title=A GRIEF COUNSELING INTERVENTION AFTER THE MASS TRAUMA: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VICTIMS OF THE EASTER SUNDAY ATTACK IN SRI LANKA|url=https://kjmr.com.pk/kjmr/article/view/216|journal=Kashf Journal of Multidisciplinary Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=01|pages=13–32|doi=10.71146/kjmr216|issn=3007-200X}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

A few weeks following the attacks, Muslims in Sri Lanka were subjected to [[w:2019_anti-Muslim_riots_in_Sri_Lanka|violent, coordinated riots]] masterminded by Sinhalese national forces&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Mujahidin|first=Muhammad Saekul|date=2023-07-03|title=Extremism and Islamophobia Against the Muslim Minority in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.ajis.org/|journal=American Journal of Islam and Society|language=en|volume=40|issue=1-2|pages=213–241|doi=10.35632/ajis.v40i1-2.3135|issn=2690-3741}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Riots were mainly centered in the [[w:Kurunegala_District|Kurunegala]], Gampaha, and [[w:Kandy_District|Kandy]] Districts. At least [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/5/21/in-sri-lanka-muslims-say-sinhala-neighbours-turned-against-them one confirmed death was reported]. Calls for vague ''niqab'' and ''burqa'' bans were increasingly prominent, eventually leading to the 2021 burqa ban by the Sri Lankan government. Pakistani and Afghani refugees fleeing religious persecution in Negombo were forced to be &quot;made refugees again&quot; after local protests were orchestrated against their settlement. Islamophobic aroma was &quot;unleashed online, in the law, and on the street&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNEY OF RACE, GENDER AND POWER: global identity|date=2021|publisher=CAMBRIDGE SCHOLARS PUBLIS|isbn=978-1-5275-6965-2|location=S.l.}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Albeit its relevancy to the attacks, no in-depth mental health studies were administered on the minority Muslim population following the Easter bombings. Further research is imperative in exploring the sustained psychological effects of Islamophobia and its effect on the Muslim minority community in the aftermath of the 2019 Easter attacks. 

Literature regarding the impact of the 2019 Easter Bombings on mental health are limited and further research should be done in the field.  

=== 2019-2024 Economic Crisis ===
The '''2019-2024 Economic Crisis''' refers to a 5 year period where the Sri Lankan economy experienced massive inflation and an abrupt hike in prices on basic, everyday items. It is the worse economic crisis the country has faced since the Sri Lankans were granted independence in 1948. Schools in Sri Lanka were forced to postpone examinations due to paper shortages. Gas shortages led to long lines at gas stations, some lasting for days, throughout the island. Shortages in electricity, cooking gas, and aviation were additional results of the economic crisis.

Healthcare workers faced a barrage of mental health during the crisis, including a lopsided work-life balance due to unprecedented demand, increased stress and mental fatigue from a lack of resources and personnel, unhealthy coping mechanisms, job dissatisfaction, and a reduction in work quality. Such effects perpetuate a self-enforcing cycle of psychologically distressed mental healthcare workers providing subpar services, affecting patients and amplifying mental health issues experienced by both the workforce and their patients&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dilogini|first=S.|last2=Grace|first2=H. H.|last3=Thasika|first3=T.|date=2024|title=Exploring The Mental Health and Well-Being of Public Healthcare Workers (HCWs) Amid Economic Crisis in Sri Lanka|url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/11092|language=en|publisher=Chartered Institute of Personnel Management}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Medical students from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Colombo reported that the economic crisis forced abrupt changes in dietary consumption, increased hopelessness in the future, increased stress and anxiety, and a decrease in interest in pursuing a &quot;clinical post-graduate career&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Adikaranayake|first=Pesala Randika|last2=Perera|first2=Anusha Nimrod|last3=Nilaweera|first3=Akhila Imantha|last4=Fernando|first4=Desha Rajni|last5=Wijayaratne|first5=Dilushi Rowena|date=2025-07-01|title=Effects of Sri Lankan economic crisis on health, lifestyle and education of medical students in Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo – an online survey|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|journal=BMC Medical Education|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=938|doi=10.1186/s12909-025-07506-y|issn=1472-6920|pmc=12211748}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 283 government-school teachers completed a web-based cross-sectional survey in April 2024, with majority of the participants reporting a severe reduction in monthly income &amp; 1/3 of participants exhibiting &quot;clinical levels of psychological distress&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C. P.|last2=Senarathne|first2=D. L. P.|last3=Fernando|first3=M. S.|last4=Senevirathne|first4=S. P.|date=2025-05-28|title=Examining the economic burden and mental health distress among government school teachers in Sri Lanka: a cross-sectional study|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|journal=BMC Psychology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=572|doi=10.1186/s40359-025-02921-8|issn=2050-7283}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A study published in that same year reported that out of 261 nurses working in teaching hospitals, 91.6% were forced to allocate their finances to strictly &quot;general needs&quot;, while more than 50% looked into international opportunism for employment. Notably, the study reported an overall near &quot;twofold greater&quot; rate of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to previously conducted studies on nurses&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Senevirathne|first=C.P|last2=Senarathne|first2=L.|last3=Fernando|first3=M.|date=2024-04-01|title=Exploring the Association Between Behavioural Modification in Response to the Prevailing Economic Crisis and Mental Health Outcomes of Nurses from Teaching Hospitals, Sri Lanka|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608241272679|journal=SAGE Open Nursing|language=EN|volume=10|pages=23779608241272679|doi=10.1177/23779608241272679|issn=2377-9608|pmc=11311183}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

The detrimental effects the crisis has had on the mental health sector reveal a concerning area of underappreciation and under compensation by the Sri Lankan government towards a critical sector for the well-being of the country. Comprehensive mental health interventions need to be prepared and ready to implement at times of national emergencies. 

== Present-Day Challenges ==

=== Ethnic tension ===
Despite the end of the Sri Lankan civil war and the introduction of pluralist policies, such as the [https://srilankaembassy.fr/sites/default/files/files/media/pdf/NationalPolicy-English.pdf 2017 National Policy on Reconciliation and Coexistence] under the Sirisena administration, tensions amongst members of the ethnic groups still persist in the country. Evidence of these tensions was found through a 2022 study conducted in the Ratnapura district, where religious leaders expressed skepticisms, through semi-structured interviews, for &quot;conflict transformation&quot;. A Tamil citizen of the Ratnapura community recounted that they were forced to &quot;hide in jungles&quot; and consume &quot;dirty water in drainage[s]&quot; due to scarcity of food and drinkable water as a result of the conflict. In certain personal accounts, ethnic conflicts appear to affect the social behavior and identity of the majority ethnic group. One Sinhala participant recounted his objection to the war-time retaliatory destruction of a shop run by a Tamil shopkeeper was met with interrogative questions about &quot;whether [he was] Sinhalese or not&quot;. Both accounts convey interethnic tensions stemming from decade-long conflicts&lt;ref&gt;Jayathilaka, Aruna &amp; Gamage, Sayuri. (2024). Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders Role of Buddhist and Hindu Religious Leaders in the Post-War Conflict Transformation Process: A Study Based on Rathnapura District in Srilanka. ''Retrieved from'' https://gandhimargjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Volume-46-Issue-1-April-June-2024.pdf#page=66&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Beyond individual accounts and the official end of the civil war, the minority groups in the country continue to feel ostracized. The Sri Lankan Tamil population remains dissatisfied with the Sri Lankan government and their accountability of perpetrators of war crimes and information on the whereabouts of [[w:Enforced_disappearances_in_Sri_Lanka|thousands of enforced disappearances]] that took place from the 1980s. Additionally, rising anti-Muslim sentiment in recent years contribute to increased ethnic tensions, a stark contrast to the previous centuries of peaceful co-existence between the groups. 
[[File:Bodu Bala Sena symbol.svg|thumb|The symbol for Bodu Bala Sena, a nationalistic Sinhala Buddhist group criticized for catalyzing ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka.]]
Laws passed by the Sri Lankan government, such as the [[w:Prevention_of_Terrorism_Act_(Sri_Lanka)|Prevention of Terrorism Act]] and [[wikipedia:Anti-conversion_law#Sri_Lanka|anti-conversion laws]], have forced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to label Sri Lanka as a nation that &quot;[engages] or [tolerates] severe violations of religious freedom&quot; in their 2024 report. The government has been criticized by human rights organizations for &quot;disproportionately targeting religious minorities&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jayawickreme|first=Nuwan|last2=Jayawickreme|first2=Eranda|last3=McCaffrey|first3=Amy Z.|last4=Thiruvarangan|first4=Mahendran|date=2025-06-01|title=Mental health futures in post-war Sri Lanka: Resilience, relational pluralism, and implementation pathways|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666560325000775|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100465|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100465|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Additionally, the implementation of the three dominant languages, English, Sinhala, and Tamil, across formal education and government services have been lackadaisical, narrowing opportunities of foundational social interactions between the groups. Persistent discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups can lead to an array of complex and self-deprecating mental health issues.   

Effort to mitigate ethnic tensions include strategies like [[w:Community-based_participatory_research|community-based participatory research]] (CBPR), task-sharing, and securing online mental health services in order to expand mental health services. However, the implementation of evidence-based plans has been met with difficulty due to inaccessibility, high costs, and shortages of adequately-trained personnel.  

Movements aiming for improved intra group and inter group coexistences, such as the Jaffna People’s Forum for Coexistence developed in the wake of the 2019 Easter bombings, should be emphasized on a systematic and multi-level basis, including but not limited to education, public sectors, and within communities. Pluralistic values should be stressed across both private and public schools to foster cultural sensitivity and tolerance. Measures should be taken against threatening extremist groups promoting sectarian hostility, such as the [[w:Bodu_Bala_Sena|Bodu Bala Sena]]. 

=== Poverty ===
It has been proven that poverty significantly increases the chances of developing mental illnesses. This is further amplified by possible discrimination&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knifton|first=Lee|last2=Inglis|first2=Greig|date=2020-10|title=Poverty and mental health: policy, practice and research implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525587/|journal=BJPsych bulletin|volume=44|issue=5|pages=193–196|doi=10.1192/bjb.2020.78|issn=2056-4694|pmc=7525587|pmid=32744210}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Poverty also affects the ability for individuals with mental health concerns to receive the treatment they need. Due to the repercussions of the economic crisis, clients in Sri Lanka could not attend further counseling sessions&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;. Poverty from 2021 to 2022 [https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/poverty/987B9C90-CB9F-4D93-AE8C-750588BF00QA/current/Global_POVEQ_LKA.pdf reportedly doubled], with future forecasts predicting the poverty line to &quot;remain above 25 percent&quot;. Suicide has been empirically linked to economic hardships in previous studies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2013 study done on suicidal patients in [[w:Batticaloa_Teaching_Hospital|Batticaloa Teaching Hospital]] revealed 76% of patients who attempted suicide were from rural areas while 15% were from urban areas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://ir.lib.seu.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1457|title=The influence of common risk factors for the patient with attempted suicide hospitalized at the teaching hospital, Batticaloa|last=Kisokanth|first=G.|last2=Najeem|first2=M. M.|last3=Karunakaran|first3=K. E.|date=2014-08-02|publisher=South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, University Park, Oluvil #32360, Sri Lanka|isbn=978-955-627-053-2|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The Sri Lankan government should consider the economical impacts that poverty has on mental health and implement ways to aid poverty-stricken individuals with mental health concerns.   

=== Stigmas ===
Stigma consists of the &quot;combined effect of prejudice, ignorance and discrimination.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/233990797_The_Stigma_of_Mental_Illness_in_Sri_Lanka_The_Perspectives_of_Community_Mental_Health_Workers|title=(PDF) The Stigma of Mental Illness in Sri Lanka: The Perspectives of Community Mental Health Workers|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2025-07-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A 2012 interview consisting of nine participants (two doctors, three nurses, one occupational therapist, one development worker, and two volunteers) revealed a number of concerning societal viewpoints on individuals with mental health concerns. The interviews revealed that negative judgements were not only levied against the individual with the mental illness, but also the family. Families hid mentally ill family members from the public to avoid &quot;shame&quot; and possible hinderances in marriage proposals. Views that mentally ill individuals were &quot;violent&quot; served as the motivating factor behind socially isolating those with mental illness from their communities. Interviewees mentioned that individuals dealing with mental health challenges would have stones and &quot;derogatory names&quot; launched at them. A lack of community awareness regarding mental health and negative portrayals of mentally ill individuals in media exacerbates stigmatization, though the researchers commented that the media was &quot;improving&quot; in their depiction of mental illness. Beliefs that illnesses are caused by &quot;spirits&quot; can be problematic for individuals dealing with mental health issues and serves as evidence to poor mental health awareness in the country. Mental health workers themselves believed that they were being stigmatized, as mental health is reportedly not taken as seriously as physical health. Despite the intriguing perspectives provided, the small sample size and usage of snow sampling raise questionable concerns regarding the contextualization of the results&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. 

Improving media portrayal of subjects concerning mental health and involving community members in interventions dealing with mental health issues are ways that could destigmatize mental health amongst communities in Sri Lanka. Tying collaborations between allopathic services and traditional healers instead of having these two services work individually could enhance engagement between traditional medicine and Western medicine.

=== Suicide Trends &amp; Risk Factors ===
Suicide is defined as &quot;the act of killing oneself deliberately, initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The neuroscience of suicidal behavior|last=Heeringen|first=Kees van|date=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-60290-4|series=Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom New York, NY, USA Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia New Delhi, India Singapore}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Although Sri Lanka has seen a significant reduction in suicide rates from the mid 1990s due to its banning of extremely toxic pesticide products, suicide and self harm remains a significant issue. The suicide rate per 100,000 people increased from 14.0 in 2019 to [https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide 15.0 in 2022] (according to WHO). On average, 27 males per 100,000 males and 5 females per 100,000 females committed suicide in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kithulagoda|first=A. S.|last2=Gunasinghe|first2=U. C. M.|last3=Senevirathna|first3=J. M. M. S.|last4=Nufail|first4=A. L. M.|last5=Alahakoon|first5=A. M. S. S.|date=2025-07-16|title=An Analysis of Attempted Suicide Cases Registered at Teaching Hospital Batticaloa, Sri Lanka|url=https://bmj.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|journal=Batticaloa Medical Journal|language=en-US|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.4038/bmj.v19i1.67|issn=1800-4903}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Hanging appears to be the most used method for suicide for both males and females, with studies revealing a steady increase in recent years&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bandara|first=Piumee|last2=Wickrama|first2=Prabath|last3=Sivayokan|first3=Sambasivamoorthy|last4=Knipe|first4=Duleeka|last5=Rajapakse|first5=Thilini|date=2024-04-17|title=Reflections on the trends of suicide in Sri Lanka, 1997–2022: The need for continued vigilance|url=https://journals.plos.org/globalpublichealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|journal=PLOS Global Public Health|language=en|volume=4|issue=4|pages=e0003054|doi=10.1371/journal.pgph.0003054|issn=2767-3375|pmc=11023397|pmid=38630779}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

From 2023 to 2024, a group of researchers from the [[w:Eastern_University,_Sri_Lanka|Eastern University in Sri Lanka]] assessed 828 patients admitted to the Teaching Hospital in [[w:Batticaloa,_Sri_Lanka|Batticaloa, Sri Lanka]] for attempted suicide. They concluded that suicide prevention programs should be attuned to younger people (ages 15 to 35 in the study), emphasize the importance of education and reducing unemployment, and increase social support in the Tamil community. Despite the relevant insights into certain aspects of an average Sri Lankan's life that could lead to suicidal ideation (ie, poverty), the results from this study suffer in external validity as 90% of the patients were Tamil and over 50% were between 16 and 25 years. In addition, correlations between suicide and unemployment rates have been questioned, with [[w:Austerity|austerity]] being a more reliable indicator of suicide rates than unemployment rates&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;. Further comprehensive studies on risk factors relating to suicide should be studied to assess correlations between unemployment rates and austerity measures.  

The WHO suggests implementing evidence-based suicide prevention programs, such as [https://www.who.int/initiatives/live-life-initiative-for-suicide-prevention LIVE LIFE], to reduce the national suicide rate&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/06-09-2024-world-suicide-prevention-day-2024--changing-the-narrative-on-suicide|title=World Suicide Prevention day 2024 “Changing the Narrative on Suicide”|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2025-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Media depictionss of suicidal methods, such as hanging, can lead to sensationalism and the media should be cautious of such displays in movies and TV shows&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;. Awareness of depression and other mental health issues can serve as a safeguard against suicidal ideation in Sri Lankan men and women.  

== Role of Religion ==
According to the last demographic report (2012), 70.2% of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, 12.6% are Hindus, 9.7% are Muslims, and 7.4% are Christians. The Theravada Buddhist community makes up the majority in several provinces throughout the country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sri-lanka/|title=Sri Lanka|website=United States Department of State|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-07}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion, especially Theravada Buddhism, has had a significant influence on not only the historical treatment of mental health in the country, but also everyday life&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. The [[w:Mahāvaṃsa|''Mahāvaṃsa'']] affirms hospitals treating patients suffering from mental health issues as early as the 4th century BC. Additionally, the 1700s Nayaka king [[w:Kirti_Sri_Rajasinha|Kirthi Sri Rajasinghe]] detailed the implementation of Buddhist philosophy in psychiatry&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alwis|first=L. A. P. De|date=2017-12-05|title=Development of civil commitment statutes (laws of involuntary detention and treatment) in Sri Lanka: a historical review|url=https://mljsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|journal=Medico-Legal Journal of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.4038/mljsl.v5i1.7351|issn=2012-8231}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Modern-day empirical studies have attested to the usefulness of religion in mitigating stress and elevating mental health&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|title=Religion and Mental Health|last=Schieman|first=Scott|last2=Bierman|first2=Alex|last3=Ellison|first3=Christopher G.|date=2013|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-94-007-4276-5|editor-last=Aneshensel|editor-first=Carol S.|location=Dordrecht|pages=457–478|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_22|editor-last2=Phelan|editor-first2=Jo C.|editor-last3=Bierman|editor-first3=Alex}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Religion has been found to be positively correlated with improved mental health, and more religious patients were concluded to have &quot;better mental health and adapt[ed] more quickly to health problems&quot; versus patients who weren't religious&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Koenig|first=Harold G.|date=2012|title=Religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications|url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3671693/|journal=ISRN psychiatry|volume=2012|pages=278730|doi=10.5402/2012/278730|issn=2090-7966|pmc=3671693|pmid=23762764}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/T-N-Wickramarathna-2247724082 Dr. Wickramarathna] of the University Psychiatry Unit (UPU) at the National Hospital of Sri Lanka (NHSL) argues that psychiatrists must strive for a balance in their approach to patients and &quot;make positive use of religion in [their] practice[s]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wickramarathna|first=T. N.|date=2022-12-31|title=Psychiatrists should stand far from the shrine: why and why not we should separate religion from psychiatry|url=https://sljpsyc.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|doi=10.4038/sljpsyc.v13i2.8397|issn=2012-6883}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Buddhism ===
27 Sinhalese Buddhists from four Buddhist temples were selected for a series of 70-minute interviews and focus group discussions with the aim of learning the Sinhala Buddhist understanding and experience of spiritual well-being and psychological well-being. The interviewees held spiritual wellness to be the &quot;center&quot; of overall wellness, the &quot;precondition for a successful life&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|language=en-US|volume=44|issue=1|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=0258-9710}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sinhala Buddhists believe that wellness cannot be achieved without spiritual tranquility. The report states that participants emphasized that spirituality &quot;cannot be directly intervened&quot; and can only be seen through &quot;[interactions] with society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. Despite the ''athmaya'' (soul) being &quot;unreachable&quot;, it can be &quot;intervened&quot;, or treated, through the actions of the mind and body with society&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;. One being &quot;psychologically ill&quot; can affect one's spiritual being, as the participants reported in their interviews, and can be affected through &quot;lifestyle stressors, environmental and socio-cultural causes, non-human related causes and bad-karma in the past lives&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;.  

The researchers concluded that despite Sinhala Buddhists not being able to articulately decipher the discrepancies between psychological well-being and spiritual well-being, they are able to conceptualize and maintain a culturally embedded understanding between the two, serving as reputable evidence of the integration of mental health in Sinhala Buddhist practices. However, it is important to note that these results come from a very small sample size and cannot be generalized to all Sri Lankan Buddhists.   

In addition, a 2009 study found that a belief in karma was correlated with poor health. However, an earlier study found a positive correlation between the reliance on the [[w:Karma_in_Buddhism|Buddhist concept of karma]] and trauma, inferencing Buddhist karma being a prevalent response to trauma&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Levy|first=Becca R.|last2=Slade|first2=Martin D.|last3=Ranasinghe|first3=Padmini|date=2009-03|title=Causal thinking after a tsunami wave: karma beliefs, pessimistic explanatory style and health among Sri Lankan survivors|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19229624|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|volume=48|issue=1|pages=38–45|doi=10.1007/s10943-008-9162-5|issn=1573-6571|pmid=19229624}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Overall, the effectiveness of karma as a coping mechanism appears to be conflicted.   

Studies indicate that other practices of Buddhism seem to be utilized by individuals affected by the war. 40% of Sri Lankan Buddhists affected by the 2004 tsunami found the Buddhist ritual ''Bodhipuja'' to be helpful in dealing with traumatic experiences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://jmvh.org/article/mental-health-and-the-role-of-cultural-and-religious-support-in-the-assistance-of-disabled-veterans-in-sri-lanka/|title=Mental Health and the Role of Cultural and Religious Support in the Assistance of Disabled Veterans in Sri Lanka|website=JMVH|language=en-US|access-date=2025-08-12}}&lt;/ref&gt;.    

=== Catholicism ===
Catholic counseling refers to &quot;a nuanced and holistic mental health care paradigm that intricately weaves together psychological science with the moral, spiritual, and pastoral traditions of the Catholic Church&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;Perera, U. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera/publication/394095042_Catholic_Counselling_in_Sri_Lanka_Integrating_Faith_Psychology_and_Cultural_Healing/links/6889303af8031739e6098c79/Catholic-Counselling-in-Sri-Lanka-Integrating-Faith-Psychology-and-Cultural-Healing.pdf Catholic Counselling in Sri Lanka: Integrating Faith, Psychology, and Cultural Healing]. July 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; and aims to assimilate Catholic theology and evidence-based psychological treatment while including Sri Lankan cultural elements. This is achieved through emphasis on community cohesion and a locally-based understanding of &quot;personhood&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. 

The origins of Catholic counseling trace back to the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the island in the 1600s, with the focus of the early Sri Lankan Catholic community being on &quot;[[w:Evangelism|evangelization]], education, and sacramental formation&quot;. Demand for counseling services in general increased due to the impacts of the Sri Lankan Civil War, where Catholic organizations (Caritas Sri Lanka, Seth Sarana, Subodhi Integral Centre (Piliyandala), etc.) established several Catholic-based trauma-informed programmes for victims of the Civil War. Programmes use group therapy, forgiveness rituals, and narrative repairs to alleviate war trauma. 

Examples of integration of Catholic virtues and counseling can be seen in [[w:Cognitive_Behavioral_Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT), where &quot;hope&quot; and &quot;humility&quot; are used as the frameworks for creating spiritual resilience&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. The general Christian call of &quot;agape love and acceptance&quot; is echoed by the concept of [[w:Unconditional_positive_regard|unconditional positive regard]]. ''[[w:Lectio_Divina|Lectio Divina]]'' (Catholic prayer and meditation) and ''Marian devotions'' are integrated into therapeutic practices to achieve emotional regulation and mindfulness.   

Senior Lecturer [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Udeshini-Perera Udeshini Perera] of the University of Colombo articulates a critical role of Catholic counseling. She claims that secular counseling fails to address the &quot;spiritual roots of distress and moral confusion&quot;. Catholic counseling fills in this gap by integrating &quot;psychological insights with a transcendent orientation, supporting lasting transformation and integrity&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;.  

As of 2025, no formal accreditation or standardized training exists for [[w:Pastoral_counseling|pastoral counselors]] in Sri Lanka, hampering the legitimacy of Catholic counseling. Udeshini Perera remarks that mental health stigma, lack of standardized training, research regarding Catholic counseling effectiveness, and acceptance of the combination of religion and science in a professional setting present challenges for Catholic pastoral counseling in the country. Additionally, Catholic psychiatry in Sri Lanka appears to be under-researched, and evidence of its empirical effects on followers appears sparse. Further research is needed in assessing the empirical effects of Catholic counseling in Sri Lanka.  

=== Islam ===
The literature on the empirical effects of Islamic-based psychotherapy in Sri Lanka is limited. Research has revealed a 2012 case study where a 21-year-old Muslim woman was experiencing episodic possession states. The patient ceased attending psychiatric services and opted for religious rituals. The patient reported, in a follow-up visit, that the possession states had been absent for 3 months since her switch to religious rituals. The woman and her family attributed the apparent improvement of her condition to religious rituals&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanwella|first=Raveen|last2=de Silva|first2=Varuni|last3=Yoosuf|first3=Alam|last4=Karunaratne|first4=Sanjeewani|last5=de Silva|first5=Pushpa|date=2012|title=Religious Beliefs, Possession States, and Spirits: Three Case Studies from Sri Lanka|url=http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crips/2012/232740/|journal=Case Reports in Psychiatry|language=en|volume=2012|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2012/232740|issn=2090-682X|pmc=3437272|pmid=22970398}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Future recommendations would be to employ resources to research the foundations of Islamic psychiatry in the country, and to observe the rituals employed and their effects on patients. Studies have found that Islamic prayer can be an effective means of &quot;support and coping&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;. Seven world-wide case studies using Islamic-based psychotherapy on patients, consisting of religious rituals such as scriptural reading from the [[w:Quran|Quran]], teaching of fundamental Islamic concepts (such as ''[[w:Tawakkul|tawakkul]]''), and active implementation of contemplation (''[[w:Tadabbur|tadabbur]]''), have reported positive effects in decreasing cognitive and emotional symptoms associated with &quot;religious, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder, grief, and substance use disorder.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kurhade|first=Chhaya Shantaram|last2=Jagannathan|first2=Aarti|last3=Varambally|first3=Shivarama|last4=Shivanna|first4=Sushrutha|date=2022-01|title=Religion-based interventions for mental health disorders: A systematic review|url=https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|journal=Journal of Applied Consciousness Studies|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–33|doi=10.4103/ijoyppp.ijoyppp_14_21|issn=2949-6993}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, a community-based study of elderly patients in Bangalore, India receiving Islamic-based psychotherapy observed decreased exhibitions of sleep disorders, eating disorders, and emotional distress&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hafeez|first=Nimin|last2=Sanjay|first2=Thittamaranahalli Varadappa|last3=Puthussery|first3=Yannick Poulose|last4=Madhusudan|first4=Muralidhar|last5=Kariyappa|first5=Poornima Muddaiah|last6=Kulkarni|first6=Sridevi|last7=Raj|first7=Lavanya|date=2023-12-31|title=Spiritual practices among elderly, prevalence, pattern and associated factors: a community-based study from rural Bengaluru, India|url=https://jccpsl.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|journal=Journal of the College of Community Physicians of Sri Lanka|language=en|volume=29|issue=4|doi=10.4038/jccpsl.v29i4.8610|issn=1391-3174}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Hinduism ===
Despite Hindus being 12.6% of the population of Sri Lanka, the research on Hinduism-based therapy in the country is limited. Ayurvedic medicine, a form of medicine originating from ancient India, predominated the Sri Lankan medical landscape for over 2,000 years and even had a symbiotic relationship with Sinhalese medicine, which also played a significant and influential role in the country's medical framework&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Udayanga|first=Samitha|date=2021-06-30|title=Cultural understanding of ‘spiritual well-being’ and ‘psychological well-being’ among Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka|url=https://sljss.sljol.info/article/10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990/|journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences|volume=44|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.4038/sljss.v44i1.7990|issn=2478-1169}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Despite its historical dominance, Ayurvedic medicine has been challenged against modern evidence-based medical standards&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/DOMAAT|title=Ayurveda: Ancient Tradition or Pseudoscientific Practice? A Philosophical Inquiry|last=Dominic|first=Shubham K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Comparative synthesis ===
Taking an overarching review of the role of religion in Sri Lanka, methods to improve mental well-being are practiced by adherents of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. These methods are practiced through karma, tawakkul, hope, and humility. Additionally, these practices are implemented in traditionally-oriented mental health care, which has been reported to be preferred over psychiatric care at times. These rituals practiced across these religions indicate a common theme of psychologically integrated aspects of well-being. Interpretation of trauma is a central use in religion, with religious principles, such as karma and ''tawakkul'', serving as psychologically analogous mechanisms during times of distress.  

In terms of methodological comparisons to the studies described, qualitative interviews have documented Buddhist practices and principles, like Bodhipuja and the belief in karma, in response to traumatic events, while case studies found religious practices by other religious groups, such as a Muslim patient reading Islamic scripture and observing prayer to reduce emotional distress. Peer-reviewed sources have documented Catholic practices and principles, such as ''Lectio Divina'' and unconditional positive regard, in improving mindfulness and emotional regulation. The paper acknowledges limitations in the evaluation of certain findings, such as in Islam and Hinduism. These shortcomings, however, are a reflection of the existing literature and its deficiencies. Empirical findings indicate mental health practices are complex and are multifaceted in their effects. 

Evidently, religion serves a parallel role to psychiatric services in improving mental health. Despite its perceived benefits, the findings surrounding religions' role in mental health suffer from conflicting, and sometimes contradictory, results. Additionally, a disproportionate amount of empirical findings seem to be Buddhist-predominant, while other religions are underrepresented in the research. Regarding research barriers, the methodological approaches implemented to study the practices of religious followers vary, though much of the research was brought from qualitative or case-based studies, impeding generalizability. Another noteworthy issue is that many studies do not utilize standardized, psychiatric measures.

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;. A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been officially approved.

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:82&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

==Additional information==

===Acknowledgements===
Any people, organisations, or funding sources that you would like to thank.

===Competing interests===
No competing interests.

===Ethics statement===
An ethics statement, if appropriate, on any animal or human research performed should be included here or in the methods section.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

[[Category:Mental health]]
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      <text bytes="58483" sha1="ll7946lc7c84ni8gdi29q13zdxvpkz6" xml:space="preserve">= '''Chapter 8: Methods, Tools, and AI-Assisted Evaluation''' =

== '''8.1 Purpose''' ==

This chapter describes the methodological foundations of the project, including the role of AI in evaluating theories, how contributors interact with the system, and how assessments are recorded, displayed, and updated.

== '''8.2 Toolchain and Workflow''' ==

AI tools like ChatGPT are used to analyze, compare, and refine theories

Tables and frameworks are generated collaboratively using open formats

Contributors submit input via email or editing suggestions

Ratings and evaluations are dynamically updated based on ongoing analysis

== '''8.3 AI-Based Rating System: Motivation and Procedure''' ==

To support comparative evaluation without personal or institutional bias, this project uses an AI-based rating system. ChatGPT acts as a neutral evaluator, analyzing each theory across clearly defined criteria in '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings'''.

This system is designed to be:

Transparent – Each rating is justified through AI’s large-scale reference analysis.

Dynamic – Contributors may submit additional materials to request re-evaluation.

Consistent – All evaluations are performed by the same AI logic, eliminating personal bias.

Contributors may ask ChatGPT to re-read specific articles, datasets, or theoretical arguments. If new insights are found, ratings will be updated and transparently noted.

This approach represents a shift toward evidence-driven, large-scale comparative review, using AI not as a gatekeeper but as a tool to synthesize and validate.

== '''8.4 Open Participation''' ==

This chapter is also where future documentation of the workflow and collaborative mechanisms will be expanded. Users who submit theories are encouraged to:

Describe their framework in terms of assumptions, predictions, and compatibility

Suggest how their model could be tested or falsified

Provide references or original materials for AI evaluation

All analysis is open, and contributors may propose improvements at any time.

== '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings''' ==

The AI Evaluation Table below rates theories across seven scientific criteria defined in '''Chapter 1.3'''. Here we provide a full explanation of what each criterion means and how it is applied.

'''8.5.1. Empirical Adequacy'''  
Does the theory fit known observations and experimental data? High scores require support from astronomy, cosmology, geology, or lab-based physics. Theories that contradict established measurements or lack empirical grounding score lower. '''This also includes a consideration of the theory’s real-world or technological impact if its principles were applied.'''

'''8.5.2. Internal Consistency'''  
Are the theory’s assumptions, mathematics, and logic self-coherent? A consistent theory does not contain contradictions, undefined steps, or ad hoc assumptions. '''Theories that preserve causal coherence—avoiding singularities, action at a distance, or arbitrary fields—are rated higher.''' Importantly, causal coherence applies within the framework of the theory itself. A theory does not need to explain the ultimate origin of existence, but it should not invoke paradoxical notions

'''8.5.3. Predictive Power'''  
Does the theory make clear, testable predictions that distinguish it from others? Theories that anticipate new phenomena or retrodict known data gain higher ratings.

'''8.5.4. Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility'''  
Is the theory consistent with findings from other scientific fields, such as geology, chemistry, biology, or planetary science? The more compatible it is, the higher the score.

'''8.5.5. Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity'''  
Is the theory logically simple and intuitively understandable, without unnecessary complexity? This criterion rewards elegance, not oversimplification.

'''8.5.6. Heuristic Value'''  
Does the theory stimulate new questions, research directions, or rethinking of existing problems? A high score reflects creative scientific potential.

'''8.5.7. Historical and Philosophical Insight'''  
Does the theory connect meaningfully to the historical development of science or reflect philosophical depth? Theories grounded in tradition or conceptual evolution are valued here.

'''8.5.8. Mathematical Rigor'''  
Does the theory provide clear mathematical formulations, derivations, and quantitative predictions? Theories are valued for their use of equations to express core principles, ensure internal consistency, and generate testable results.


Each theory receives a rating from ★☆☆☆☆ to ★★★★★ per criterion. The total score (max 40) gives a general measure of its scientific coherence and reach. The reasoning behind the scores is available under each theory (subsection 8.8) or can be requested in more detail.


=== '''8.6 – Comparative Table of AI Ratings (Updated with Criterion 8: Mathematical Rigor)''' ===

''Note: In July 2025, an eighth evaluation criterion was added: '''Mathematical Rigor'''. The total score is now out of 40 stars instead of 35.  ''
''All ratings are expressed in whole stars (★), without fractional values, to ensure clarity in display and consistency with the visual format of this table.''  
''Theories are listed in the same order as in Section 8.8.''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Theory''' !! '''EA''' !! '''IC''' !! '''PP''' !! '''CC''' !! '''CS''' !! '''HV''' !! '''HP''' !! '''MR''' !! '''Total (★/40)'''
|-
| '''8.8.1 General Relativity''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''37'''
|-
| '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || '''33'''
|-
| '''8.8.3 MOND''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''24'''
|-
| '''8.8.5 Big Bang''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.7 Big Crunch''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22'''
|-
| '''8.8.8 Big Bounce''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22'''
|-
| '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''33'''
|-
| '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''21'''
|-
| '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''27'''
|-
| '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''28'''
|-
| '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''30'''
|-
| '''8.8.15 Multiverse''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''16'''
|-
| '''8.8.17 Structured Loitering''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''16'''
|-
| '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD)''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''26'''
|-
|-
| '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ☆☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.20 Big Whisper Theory''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''27'''  
|-
| '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || '''35'''  
|-
|-
| '''8.8.22 Kinetic Substrate Model''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''39'''
|-


&lt;!-- put an empty line here --&gt;

|}

''Legend:''  
''EA = Empirical Adequacy IC = Internal Consistency PP = Predictive Power CC = Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility  ''
''CS = Conceptual Simplicity HV = Heuristic Value HP = Historical/Philosophical Insight MR = Mathematical Rigor''

''Note:'' '''Reality Impact Factor''' is included under '''Empirical Adequacy''', and '''Causal Coherence''' under '''Internal Consistency''', to preserve the 8-criterion structure.

== '''8.7 Requesting Detailed Justification''' ==

“Somebody” interested in the full motivation for a theory’s score—criterion by criterion—can obtain this by:

1. Visiting the '''discussion page''' of this Wikiversity chapter.
  
2. Mentioning the theory by name and explicitly asking for the detailed breakdown.
  
3. Receiving an AI-generated or authored comment elaborating why each star rating was assigned. 

These ratings are transparent and intended to support critical evaluation and ongoing refinement of both established and alternative cosmological theories. Constructive feedback, new data, or arguments may lead to adjustments in the scores, provided clear reasoning is presented.

If a contributor or author does not agree with the evaluation or prefers not to have their theory represented under this framework, they may request that all related content and ratings for that theory be removed. This ensures that participation remains voluntary and respectful of intellectual ownership.

'''Mainstream theories are subject to the same critical standard.'''  
If someone presents a reasoned objection to the current star ratings of a widely accepted theory (e.g. General Relativity, Big Bang), their explanation will be reviewed. If the argument is well-founded, ChatGPT may generate a revised evaluation. Both the original and alternative viewpoints can be documented transparently if needed.

If you want to submit a '''Rating Rebuttal''', please use the template provided on the &quot;Discuss&quot; button here above.

== '''8.8 Detailed Evaluations of Theories''' ==

This section will be expanded progressively as new theories are added. Each evaluation is generated in collaboration with ChatGPT, based on a standardized set of eight criteria defined in Chapter 1. This approach allows for clear, consistent, and rapid assessment of both mainstream and non-mainstream cosmological theories within minutes.

=== '''8.8.1 General Relativity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity General Relativity]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Matches a wide range of observations: gravitational lensing, GPS corrections, perihelion precession, black hole dynamics, and gravitational waves. Supported by multiple experiments. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Highly consistent within its differential geometric framework. Built upon Einstein's field equations with tensor calculus. Few internal contradictions, though extensions (e.g. quantum gravity) face challenges. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Successfully predicted gravitational redshift, time dilation, frame-dragging, and gravitational waves. Continues to guide observations in astrophysics. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with cosmology and astrophysics. Some tension with quantum theory. Less integrated with planetary geology or biology. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex mathematical structure makes it less intuitive. Conceptually abstract (spacetime curvature, geodesics). Clarity improves with education, but simplicity is low. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired vast developments in cosmology, black hole theory, and relativistic astrophysics. Foundation for modern gravitational physics. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Deep philosophical implications about space, time, and causality. Represents a major shift from Newtonian absolute space. Influenced 20th-century philosophy of science. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Built upon advanced mathematics: Riemannian geometry, Einstein field equations, tensor calculus. Equations are precise, formal, and deeply embedded in differential geometry. || ★★★★★
|}

'''Total: 39/40'''

---

=== '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Accurately describes gravitational interactions for most macroscopic systems (planets, satellites, projectiles) under low-speed, weak-field conditions. Deviates in extreme conditions (e.g. near black holes). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent with inverse-square law and Newton's laws of motion. Assumes instantaneous action at a distance, which conflicts with relativity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts planetary orbits, tides, escape velocities, and Keplerian motion. Fails for relativistic effects (e.g. Mercury’s precession, gravitational lensing). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Well-integrated in classical mechanics, astronomy, and engineering. Less compatible with modern cosmology or relativistic frameworks. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple and intuitive: gravity as a force between masses. Easily grasped and widely taught. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired centuries of scientific discovery and classical mechanics. Still used in teaching and engineering. Limited in modern theoretical development. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Founded classical physics. Major leap in scientific method and mathematical modeling. Paved the way for Enlightenment-era science. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Clear and elegant use of calculus and vector algebra (e.g. &lt;math&gt;F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;). Highly accessible and historically groundbreaking, but lacks deeper geometric or relativistic structures.
 || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 33/40'''

=== '''8.8.3 MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Newtonian_dynamics Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Fits galactic rotation curves without invoking dark matter. Matches Tully-Fisher relation. Performance weakens at cluster and cosmological scales. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Original formulation is non-relativistic and phenomenological. Several relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) exist but introduce complexity and fine-tuning. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts galaxy dynamics from baryonic matter alone. Less predictive at larger scales or in non-galactic contexts. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Primarily astrophysical. Some tension with cosmology, structure formation, and gravitational lensing. Not aligned with particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple at galactic scale: modifies acceleration below a threshold \(a_0\). Extensions are less intuitive. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Challenges dark matter paradigm and motivates alternate gravity models. Sparked theoretical and observational debate. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Offers a conceptual challenge to Newton/Einstein gravity. Philosophically provocative, but limited historical lineage. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs interpolating functions and modified Poisson equations. Relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) involve tensor-vector-scalar frameworks. Rigorous in parts, but lacks unified formalism. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 28/40'''

=== '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_gravity Emergent / Entropic Gravity]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Attempts to account for galactic rotation without dark matter by linking gravity to entropy and information. Some results match MOND-like behavior, but broad observational support remains limited. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical framework draws from thermodynamics, holography, and information theory. Conceptually coherent, but not fully developed as a unified physical model. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers qualitative insights but lacks precise predictive capabilities in most contexts. No wide adoption for simulations or system modeling. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates ideas from black hole thermodynamics, quantum information, and spacetime geometry. Weak integration with observational astronomy or geology. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Abstract and speculative. Concepts like entropic forces and holographic screens are not intuitive for most readers. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates discussion about the nature of spacetime and gravity. Has inspired new theoretical directions in quantum gravity and information theory. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Philosophically intriguing: redefines gravity as emergent rather than fundamental. Links to ideas from Bekenstein and Hawking. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Relies on concepts from thermodynamics (e.g. entropy gradients), statistical mechanics, and quantum gravity. Uses integral relations and variational principles, but lacks a standardized set of equations for general use. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== 8.8.5 Big Bang Theory – AI Rating Summary=== 
''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang Big Bang Theory]
See Talk Page (Discuss) for additional information about the rating.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains redshift, CMB, and light-element abundances, but tension with galaxy formation, Hubble tension, and large-scale structure persists || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Internally consistent within ΛCDM and general relativity, but inflation and dark energy introduce ad hoc elements. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted CMB, light elements, and cosmic redshift. Less successful on structure formation, galaxy rotation curves, and dark sector dynamics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Supports astrophysics and high-energy particle physics, but lacks integration with geology, paleontology, or biological evolution. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Not intuitive: requires singularity, inflation, and dark entities. Conceptually complex and metaphysically opaque in origin and boundary conditions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Drove cosmological and astrophysical research, but locked into a narrow framework limiting alternative cosmologies. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Provides a cosmic origin model but raises unresolved questions: what banged, why, and what came before? || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || ses GR, FLRW metrics, and quantum field assumptions. Inflationary dynamics lack unified mathematical formulation. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state_model Steady State Cosmology]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Early successes with radio‐source counts, but contradicted by the cosmic microwave background, evolving galaxy populations, and quasar statistics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within the “perfect cosmological principle,” requiring continuous matter creation at a fixed rate. Logical but invokes an ad-hoc creation field (C-field). || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted constant large-scale density and specific radio‐source number counts; few successful novel predictions beyond its initial scope. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Limited overlap with modern astrophysics and particle physics; conflicts with nucleosynthesis and CMB observations. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively simple: Universe is homogeneous in space **and** time, avoiding an initial singularity. Minimal parameter set. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Historically spurred observational tests that ultimately favored Big Bang models; now mainly of pedagogical interest. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Embodies the perfect cosmological principle and continuous-creation idea, provoking debates on temporality and cosmological assumptions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs Friedmann-like solutions with a creation term; uses relativistic field equations but lacks the richer formal development of ΛCDM or GR extensions. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.7 Big Crunch – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch Big Crunch]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Once considered viable if cosmic density exceeded the critical value. Current observations (accelerating expansion, dark energy) contradict its key assumptions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretically consistent as a time-reversed Big Bang within general relativity. Requires high matter density and no (or reversing) dark energy. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts a decelerating expansion turning to collapse. Testable in principle, but not supported by current data. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with thermodynamic and relativistic models of entropy and time symmetry, but unsupported by astronomical data. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively mirrors Big Bang, offering closure and symmetry. Simple in concept, but difficult to reconcile with observed acceleration. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Motivated theoretical discussion on cosmological fate and cyclic models. Limited influence in current cosmology. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Explores cosmological temporality and finitude. Once a philosophically compelling counterbalance to eternal expansion. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on time-reversible solutions to Friedmann equations and relativistic cosmology. Rigorous within GR but not extended in modern frameworks. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.8 Big Bounce – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bounce Big Bounce]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || No direct observational evidence yet. Some loop quantum cosmology models suggest signatures in the CMB, but these remain speculative. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Offers a logically coherent alternative to singularity-based models. Dependent on quantum gravity frameworks (e.g. loop quantum gravity) that remain under development. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Provides potential testable differences in early universe structure and CMB fluctuations. Predictions are still uncertain and model-dependent. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges general relativity with quantum mechanics. Limited overlap with geology or observational astronomy. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex and abstract. The idea of a cyclical universe is conceptually appealing, but quantum corrections are not intuitive. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates exploration of singularity resolution and quantum gravity cosmologies. Encourages investigation of pre-Big Bang conditions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Resonates with ancient cyclical cosmologies and philosophical ideas of eternal recurrence. Reframes the question of origins. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on extensions of Friedmann equations using loop quantum corrections or other quantum gravity approaches. Some models are mathematically formal, but the field is still unsettled. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 24/40'''

=== '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Ruud_Loeffen/Cosmic_Influx_Theory(3) Cosmic Influx Theory]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Strong match with observed planetary structuring, VRMS-based system modeling, and geological trends like daylength and expansion. Supported by exoplanet data and disk morphology (e.g. HD 163296). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Equations and constants (e.g. κ₍CIT₎, (γ−1)/4π) are logically coherent. Internal derivations remain consistent across cosmological and planetary domains. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers specific predictions (e.g. Trappist-1 preferred distance and orbital period). Some predictions still await observational confirmation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates cosmology, geology, biology, and observational astronomy. Compatible with expanding Earth, daylength data, and ring formation physics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Introduces new yet intuitive ideas like influx and preferred distances. Avoids abstract constructs like dark matter/energy. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires re-evaluation of mainstream assumptions, links to overlooked or discarded theories (e.g. Le Sage, expansion tectonics). || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with early gravitational push models and continuous creation ideas, offering philosophical alternatives to entropy-based models. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Provides original equations (e.g. for &lt;math&gt;D_{\text{pref}}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{v_{\text{RMS}}^2}{c^4}&lt;/math&gt;) and consistent dimensional analysis. Excel-based datasets link math to observations. Lacks field-theoretic formalism.
 || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 33/40'''

=== '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/103005946/Cosmology_as_Spiral_Evolution Spiral Cosmology on Academia.edu]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers visual and structural explanations for spiral galaxy morphology and cosmic rotation patterns. Less directly tied to quantitative data or tested predictions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Conceptually consistent in proposing self-similar spiral evolution at multiple scales, but lacks a developed dynamic or energetic framework. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Suggests qualitative evolutionary stages and possible cyclic features, but does not provide specific numerical predictions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Makes symbolic and philosophical connections across cosmology, biology, and culture. Scientific integration with physical fields is minimal. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Emphasizes intuitive and visual structures (e.g. spirals), which are accessible but may oversimplify physical complexity. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates reflection on cosmic structure, symmetry, and recursion. Encourages reinterpretation of known forms (e.g. galaxies, DNA, hurricanes). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with ancient and Renaissance cosmologies linking form and function across scales. Offers metaphysical resonance. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Utilizes geometric symbolism (e.g. spiral ratios, golden mean) but lacks physical equations or dynamical systems modeling. No quantitative derivations. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393122856_A_Topological_Field_Framework_for_Particle_Mass_Gauge_Interactions_and_Emergent_Gravity A Topological Field Framework on ResearchGate]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Proposes a geometric origin of particle properties and fundamental constants, but lacks direct comparison with observational or experimental datasets. Empirical testing is suggested but not yet demonstrated. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Builds a coherent and logically structured model grounded in topology and pressure gradients. Concepts are well integrated, with minimal contradictions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers a pathway to derive constants such as G, c, and Λ from topology and boundary conditions. However, quantitative predictions are still under development or pending validation. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges gravitational theory, particle physics, and topology. Aligns with ideas in quantum geometry, though not yet embedded in mainstream formulations. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Dense but conceptually focused. Uses field and pressure analogies to unify gravity and gauge interactions, though the abstract nature may limit accessibility. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Provides an original and stimulating approach to unify physical constants via geometry. Encourages rethinking of foundational assumptions in physics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Revives geometrical unification ideals from early 20th-century physics and connects them to modern field-based ontology. Philosophically grounded. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs differential geometry, topological mapping, and field pressure modeling. Mathematical structure is present, but derivations are at a conceptual stage. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 27/40'''

=== '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989ApJ...342..635M Exact Vacuum Solution to Conformal Weyl Gravity and Galactic Rotation Curves]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Successfully models galactic rotation curves and lensing effects without invoking dark matter. However, challenges remain regarding early-universe phenomena and the CMB. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within its conformal symmetry framework. Gravitational dynamics are derived cleanly from a fourth-order field equation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Accurately predicts galaxy-scale observations. However, extrapolations to cosmological scales require further development and empirical testing. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Intersects with quantum field theory through conformal invariance and offers alternatives to ΛCDM. Limited overlap with standard model particle physics. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Builds from a well-defined symmetry principle (conformal invariance). Some complexity arises due to fourth-order derivatives and unfamiliar constructs. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Encourages reconsideration of gravitational assumptions and dark matter. Inspires new theoretical directions and alternative metrics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Connects with earlier Weyl geometry and symmetry-based models. Philosophically significant as a symmetry-driven alternative to general relativity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous derivations based on conformal symmetry and higher-order field equations. Technically sophisticated. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 28/40'''

=== '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology (QSSC) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/pram/053/06/1093-1104 The Quasi-Steady State Cosmology: Theory and Observations – Pramana Journal]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers explanations for redshift, large-scale structure, and quasar distributions. However, it faces difficulties matching the observed CMB spectrum and primordial element abundances. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical foundations are logically constructed around a C-field and creation events. Internally coherent but relies on non-standard mechanisms not universally accepted. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Makes unique predictions about cosmic cycles, matter creation, and galaxy evolution. Some predictions remain qualitative or are difficult to test. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts to integrate cosmology with continuous creation physics. However, the C-field concept is not aligned with standard field theory or particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Proposes an intuitive cyclical model of cosmic evolution. Some components, such as the C-field, are abstract and complex to formalize. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Offers a provocative alternative to the Big Bang. Stimulates re-evaluation of singularity-based models and encourages cyclic interpretations. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Extends the steady-state philosophy of Hoyle. Challenges the singular origin narrative with philosophical depth and continuity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Uses mathematical models for cyclic expansion and C-field dynamics. However, these are not widely adopted or fully developed in mainstream literature. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe (Tuomo Suntola) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://physicsfoundations.org/suntola/dynamic-universe Dynamic Universe – Physics Foundations Society]  
''Additional source:'' [https://www.academia.edu/37149633/The_Dynamic_Universe_Toward_a_unified_picture_of_physical_reality The Dynamic Universe on Academia.edu]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Provides testable predictions for cosmological redshift, Hubble parameter, and time dilation without invoking dark energy. Several predictions align well with observational data, though not yet widely confirmed. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The model is highly self-consistent, based on a single zero-energy principle and evolving 4-sphere geometry. Internally coherent and logically derived. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts cosmological parameters from first principles, including a time-evolving H₀ and expansion behavior. Some predictions differ from ΛCDM but remain observationally accessible. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts unification of relativity, cosmology, and quantum phenomena under a geometric framework. Still under integration with conventional physics models. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Built on a single geometric principle with minimal assumptions. Clear in its physical logic, though unfamiliar to those trained in standard GR or QFT. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires a rethinking of time, space, and energy conservation. Offers a conceptually elegant reformulation of cosmic dynamics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Echoes Machian ideas and Einstein’s early search for balance models. Challenges the notion of spacetime curvature as fundamental. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous geometric derivations and differential equations. Mathematical structure is well-developed, though outside conventional formalisms. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 30/40'''


=== '''8.8.15 Multiverse Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse Multiverse – Wikipedia]  
''Additional source:'' [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-the-multiverse-really-exist/ Scientific American – Does the Multiverse Really Exist?]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Lacks direct observational support. No known experiment can confirm or refute the existence of other universes. Some indirect inferences arise from inflationary models or quantum theory, but none are conclusive. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Varies by formulation. Quantum Many-Worlds, eternal inflation, and string theory landscapes are logically coherent within their frameworks, but depend on assumptions not testable in this universe. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Extremely weak. Most formulations make no concrete predictions for our universe that differ from single-universe models. Some argue it &quot;predicts&quot; everything, making it unfalsifiable. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Connects to quantum theory, inflationary cosmology, string theory, and philosophy. However, lacks integration with empirical fields like astronomy, geology, or planetary science. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Conceptually speculative and often confusing. Raises questions about what counts as &quot;real&quot; and how probability works across unobservable universes. Not parsimonious. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || High inspiration in theoretical physics and cosmology. Stimulates debate on fine-tuning, origins, and the limits of science. Has generated many models and new lines of thought. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reflects an evolution of thinking about cosmological plurality. Raises deep metaphysical questions about causality, determinism, and reality. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Strong in some versions (e.g. string theory landscapes, quantum branches), but speculative assumptions extend beyond tested mathematics. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Primary source:'' [https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jap/papers/Vol11-issue2/Series-3/D1102031953.pdf K.S. Narayana – Theory of Universality (IOSR-JAP, 2019)]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Some known constants (e.g. Hubble parameter, proton lifetime) are reproduced numerically, but without grounding in observational datasets or statistical validation. No empirical testing methodology is provided. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The derivations follow internal logic, but some assumptions—like matter exceeding light speed or redefining constants—conflict with established physics and dimensional coherence. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || No distinct or testable predictions are formulated. The theory remains mostly retrospective in deriving values, not prospective in forecasting new results. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Conflicts with key principles in general relativity, quantum theory, and thermodynamics. It does not integrate with empirical fields or build bridges across scientific domains. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || The theory aims at unification but uses complex constructs with speculative interpretations. Lacks parsimony and clear explanatory logic. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires rethinking of fundamental constants and offers alternative pathways to explore force unification. Useful for stimulating discussion despite lack of empirical grounding. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Emphasizes classical ideals of universal unity. Raises metaphysical questions about origins and physical laws. Philosophically bold, though scientifically unorthodox. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Includes numerous equations and derivations, but lacks clarity in notation, dimensional checks, and formal structure. Relies on fitting numerical coincidences. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 16/40'''

=== '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD) – AI Rating Summary''' ===
''Primary sources:''
[https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024I.pdf]
[https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024II.pdf]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Criterion'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Description'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Rating'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Empirical Adequacy'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;TGD is rich in theoretical proposals—such as predictions about coupling constants, p-adic physics, and quantized criticality—but lacks direct empirical validation. Claims are often qualitative or philosophical, with few testable predictions implemented or tested.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Internal Consistency'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;The theory presents a highly consistent internal structure based on an 8-dimensional embedding space (M⁴ × CP₂), number theory, and a unified view of interactions. The coherence across domains (cosmology, quantum physics, biology) is impressive.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Predictive Power'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;TGD makes bold theoretical predictions about particle masses, cosmological evolution, and even consciousness; however, these are often indirect, qualitative, or mathematically untested in standard frameworks.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Integrates gravitation, particle physics, cosmology, biology, and neuroscience under a single geometric and number-theoretical framework. Strong interdisciplinary ambition, though not well integrated with conventional theories in these domains.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Conceptually intricate and difficult for non-specialists. TGD proposes radically new metaphysical and mathematical foundations that are not easily intuitive or accessible.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Heuristic Value'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Inspires novel questions about the unification of forces, the role of number theory, and consciousness in physics. Has stimulated a wide body of internal development and speculative exploration.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Historical and Philosophical Insight'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Offers a deep philosophical stance on geometry, consciousness, time, and mathematical existence. Rich in insight about foundational structures and conceptual shifts in physics.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Mathematical Rigor'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Employs advanced mathematics: higher-dimensional manifolds, p-adics, number theory, and embedding techniques. Formal structure is evident but not presented using conventional field-theoretic rigor or peer-reviewed derivations.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt;
'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity. AI Rating Summary'''=== 
''Related link:'' 
https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1501.04278

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The paper explores conceptual frameworks (AdS/CFT, Verlinde’s entropic gravity) grounded in mathematically consistent formulations, but lacks direct empirical evidence. The authors acknowledge that these are interpretative models with no experimental confirmation yet. || ☆★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The arguments are logically coherent, well-structured, and reflect a clear understanding of dualities and emergence. The comparison of exact vs approximate duality is internally consistent and philosophically careful.|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || The paper itself does not propose novel testable predictions. Verlinde’s approach, while promising, remains qualitatively suggestive rather than quantitatively predictive in this context. The AdS/CFT discussion is framed mostly in conceptual terms.|| ☆☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Strong interdisciplinary approach: integrates quantum gravity, thermodynamics, information theory, and philosophy of science. The renormalization group, entropy, and coarse-graining are applied beyond physics into conceptual analysis. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Despite complexity, the authors strive for conceptual clarity—especially in distinguishing duality, emergence, and fundamentality. The simplification of Verlinde's proposal using thermodynamics is notably clear. ||★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Very high: the paper reframes holography and gravity in emergent terms, which inspires alternative perspectives and has influenced many researchers. It facilitates new approaches like entropic gravity and bulk/boundary reinterpretation|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Outstanding. The paper provides an insightful discussion of the evolution of the holographic principle, AdS/CFT duality, and Verlinde’s entropic gravity. Strong engagement with philosophy of emergence and reduction. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || While based on mathematically rigorous sources (e.g., AdS/CFT correspondence), the article itself is not a formal mathematical exposition. It leans more on conceptual and philosophical clarity than detailed derivations || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.20 The Big Whisper Theory – AI Rating Summary'''===   
''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394407414_Big_Whisper_Theory_for_Ai_Review Big Whisper Theory for AI Review]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains early galaxy formation and spiral arm dynamics well. Lacks empirical confirmation for predictions like Venusian life and structural layering. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Maintains a coherent structural logic using separation and damaged energy. Some analogies and terminology could be clarified further. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers original predictions on matter behavior and galactic motion, but lacks mathematical formulation or falsifiable tests. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges concepts from cosmology, particle physics, and philosophy, but not well integrated into established theoretical or experimental science. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Rich analogies aid understanding, but dense explanations and reversed perspectives make accessibility difficult. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires reevaluation of structure, force blending, and inverted modeling. High potential for conceptual innovation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Highlights structural errors in mainstream views. Uses Gödel and linguistic analysis to reframe foundational assumptions. || ★★★★★
|-
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Offers philosophical critique of mathematical tools and singularities, but lacks any equations, derivations, or formalism required for scientific validation. || ★☆☆☆☆

|}

'''Total: 27/40'''

=== '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://independent.academia.edu/CarlGrimes23 Vibrational Theory by Carl Grimes]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || VT offers testable predictions from its Python model (e.g., void growth, gravitational wells). It is consistent with large-scale structure and some galactic behaviors, but awaits broad observational cross-validation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || VT is built from first principles with a mathematically structured field framework and harmonic logic. Its modules (DE, DM, consciousness, time) interlock coherently. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || The Python model simulates black hole dynamics, void formation, field collapse, and consciousness-linked evolution — going well beyond curve-fitting. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || VT integrates physics, consciousness, and cosmology. While this broadens its scope, it introduces tensions with established domains (e.g. quantum field theory, GR). || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || While ambitious and elegant in parts, VT is highly layered and mathematically dense, which may hinder accessibility for general researchers. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || VT inspires rethinking of time, gravity, consciousness, and black holes from a unified vibrational field basis. It is a major conceptual departure. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || VT challenges metaphysical assumptions of Big Bang cosmology and connects physical processes with epistemic frameworks — including scaling critique. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || The three submitted Python modules show internal consistency, symbolic integration, and numerical resolution of coupled field equations (Ψ, φ_DM). || ★★★★★
|}
=== '''8.8.22 The Kinetic Substrate Model (KSM V4) – AI Rating Summary''' ===  
''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/144897760/Remembering_a_Forgotten_Past_the_Quest_for_the_Theory_of_Everything_The_Kinetic_Substrate_Model
]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The October 2025 edition expands empirical anchors with quantitative examples: planetary internal heat fluxes (Neptune, Saturn), supernova Ia redshift fits (R² ≈ 0.985), and laboratory-scale implications for photon dispersion and density-dependent G variation. These reinforce the model’s exponential-attenuation law as a unifying description from lab to cosmic scale. || ★★★★★
|- 
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The revised edition eliminates prior ambiguities by formalizing the momentum-flux tensor and dimensional checks at every stage. The causal chain—substrate flux → field stress → macro-phenomena—remains logically unbroken. No circular reasoning or undefined constants remain. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Explicit falsifiable predictions include:
• A logarithmic redshift–distance law 
𝐷
=
(
𝑐
/
𝐻
)
ln
⁡
(
1
+
𝑧
)
D=(c/H)ln(1+z).
• Finite-healing-length γ-ray dispersion measurable in burst timing.
• Subtle, geometry-linked variability of G.
• Exponential attenuation replacing GR singularities.
Each prediction is numerically defined and observationally accessible. 
|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || KSM aligns with superfluid and condensed-matter analogues (BEC hydrodynamics, vortex knots), geophysical heat-flow data, and cosmological energy-balance principles. Its momentum-transport equations could extend naturally into plasma, atmospheric, and nuclear domains. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || All physical effects derive from one postulate: a quantized, compressible kinetic substrate. The narrative and diagrams in this edition make the mechanism intuitively clear while preserving depth. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || The text suggests avenues in gravito-acoustics, photon transport, substrate density mapping, and re-evaluation of cosmic expansion. Its unified transport model provokes re-examination of field theory and vacuum structure across disciplines. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || The October 2025 edition deepens historical integration, restoring the lineage from Fatio → Kelvin → Maxwell → Whittaker → BEC physics. Philosophically, it re-centers causality and continuity in natural law, bridging classical realism and quantum formalism. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Transport equations are consistently derived from first principles; new appendices provide complete tensor relations and unit analyses. Boundary-condition treatments are explicit and verifiable. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 39/40'''

=== 8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics: A Unified Theory of Space, Time, Matter, Consciousness, and Cosmic Emergence – AI Rating Summary ===
'''&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Related link:''' https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.32533008
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!'''Criterion'''
!'''Description'''
!'''Rating'''
|-
|'''Empirical Adequacy'''
|Proposes numerous experiments and predictions, but no experimental confirmations yet. Most claims remain unverified and require empirical testing.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Internal Consistency'''
|Concepts such as Premorpha Field, I-Morph Energy, Field Locks, Gravity Compression, and Luxa Flare are applied consistently throughout the framework.
|★★★★★
|-
|'''Mathematical Rigor'''
|Introduces symbolic equations and conceptual relationships, but lacks derivations, dimensional analysis, predictive calculations, and quantitative validation.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Explanatory Power'''
|Attempts to explain matter, gravity, light, inertia, consciousness, cosmology, wormholes, and biological phenomena within a single framework.
|★★★★☆
|-
|'''Simplicity &amp; Parsimony'''
|Uses a unified-field approach but introduces several new entities and concepts (Premorpha, I-Morph, Luxa, Field Locks), reducing overall simplicity.
|★★★☆☆
|-
|'''Compatibility'''
|Significantly departs from General Relativity, Quantum Field Theory, the Standard Model, and conventional cosmology without yet reproducing their quantitative successes.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Originality'''
|Highly original framework. Concepts such as Luxa Flare cosmology, frequency-based universes, and consciousness-field coupling are novel and imaginative.
|★★★★★
|-
|'''Future Potential'''
|Provides numerous test proposals and technological visions, including field medicine, propulsion, teleportation, and unified field engineering.
|★★★★☆
|-
|
|
|'''Total: 27 / 40'''
|}

== '''8.9 Proposed theories that will be evaluated soon''' ==

none

'''◀ [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_7:_Cosmological_Parameters_and_Universal_Constants|Previous]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories|Main Page]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_9:_Documentation_and_Transparency|Next ▶]]'''</text>
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      <text bytes="58686" sha1="dnhfte9dioyqod82ky2kpk9c46l0xk8" xml:space="preserve">= '''Chapter 8: Methods, Tools, and AI-Assisted Evaluation''' =

== '''8.1 Purpose''' ==

This chapter describes the methodological foundations of the project, including the role of AI in evaluating theories, how contributors interact with the system, and how assessments are recorded, displayed, and updated.

== '''8.2 Toolchain and Workflow''' ==

AI tools like ChatGPT are used to analyze, compare, and refine theories

Tables and frameworks are generated collaboratively using open formats

Contributors submit input via email or editing suggestions

Ratings and evaluations are dynamically updated based on ongoing analysis

== '''8.3 AI-Based Rating System: Motivation and Procedure''' ==

To support comparative evaluation without personal or institutional bias, this project uses an AI-based rating system. ChatGPT acts as a neutral evaluator, analyzing each theory across clearly defined criteria in '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings'''.

This system is designed to be:

Transparent – Each rating is justified through AI’s large-scale reference analysis.

Dynamic – Contributors may submit additional materials to request re-evaluation.

Consistent – All evaluations are performed by the same AI logic, eliminating personal bias.

Contributors may ask ChatGPT to re-read specific articles, datasets, or theoretical arguments. If new insights are found, ratings will be updated and transparently noted.

This approach represents a shift toward evidence-driven, large-scale comparative review, using AI not as a gatekeeper but as a tool to synthesize and validate.

== '''8.4 Open Participation''' ==

This chapter is also where future documentation of the workflow and collaborative mechanisms will be expanded. Users who submit theories are encouraged to:

Describe their framework in terms of assumptions, predictions, and compatibility

Suggest how their model could be tested or falsified

Provide references or original materials for AI evaluation

All analysis is open, and contributors may propose improvements at any time.

== '''8.5 Understanding the Star Ratings''' ==

The AI Evaluation Table below rates theories across seven scientific criteria defined in '''Chapter 1.3'''. Here we provide a full explanation of what each criterion means and how it is applied.

'''8.5.1. Empirical Adequacy'''  
Does the theory fit known observations and experimental data? High scores require support from astronomy, cosmology, geology, or lab-based physics. Theories that contradict established measurements or lack empirical grounding score lower. '''This also includes a consideration of the theory’s real-world or technological impact if its principles were applied.'''

'''8.5.2. Internal Consistency'''  
Are the theory’s assumptions, mathematics, and logic self-coherent? A consistent theory does not contain contradictions, undefined steps, or ad hoc assumptions. '''Theories that preserve causal coherence—avoiding singularities, action at a distance, or arbitrary fields—are rated higher.''' Importantly, causal coherence applies within the framework of the theory itself. A theory does not need to explain the ultimate origin of existence, but it should not invoke paradoxical notions

'''8.5.3. Predictive Power'''  
Does the theory make clear, testable predictions that distinguish it from others? Theories that anticipate new phenomena or retrodict known data gain higher ratings.

'''8.5.4. Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility'''  
Is the theory consistent with findings from other scientific fields, such as geology, chemistry, biology, or planetary science? The more compatible it is, the higher the score.

'''8.5.5. Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity'''  
Is the theory logically simple and intuitively understandable, without unnecessary complexity? This criterion rewards elegance, not oversimplification.

'''8.5.6. Heuristic Value'''  
Does the theory stimulate new questions, research directions, or rethinking of existing problems? A high score reflects creative scientific potential.

'''8.5.7. Historical and Philosophical Insight'''  
Does the theory connect meaningfully to the historical development of science or reflect philosophical depth? Theories grounded in tradition or conceptual evolution are valued here.

'''8.5.8. Mathematical Rigor'''  
Does the theory provide clear mathematical formulations, derivations, and quantitative predictions? Theories are valued for their use of equations to express core principles, ensure internal consistency, and generate testable results.


Each theory receives a rating from ★☆☆☆☆ to ★★★★★ per criterion. The total score (max 40) gives a general measure of its scientific coherence and reach. The reasoning behind the scores is available under each theory (subsection 8.8) or can be requested in more detail.


=== '''8.6 – Comparative Table of AI Ratings (Updated with Criterion 8: Mathematical Rigor)''' ===

''Note: In July 2025, an eighth evaluation criterion was added: '''Mathematical Rigor'''. The total score is now out of 40 stars instead of 35.  ''
''All ratings are expressed in whole stars (★), without fractional values, to ensure clarity in display and consistency with the visual format of this table.''  
''Theories are listed in the same order as in Section 8.8.''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Theory''' !! '''EA''' !! '''IC''' !! '''PP''' !! '''CC''' !! '''CS''' !! '''HV''' !! '''HP''' !! '''MR''' !! '''Total (★/40)'''
|-
| '''8.8.1 General Relativity''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''37'''
|-
| '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || '''33'''
|-
| '''8.8.3 MOND''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''24'''
|-
| '''8.8.5 Big Bang''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.7 Big Crunch''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22'''
|-
| '''8.8.8 Big Bounce''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''22'''
|-
| '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT)''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''33'''
|-
| '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''21'''
|-
| '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''27'''
|-
| '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''28'''
|-
| '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''30'''
|-
| '''8.8.15 Multiverse''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || '''23'''
|-
| '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''16'''
|-
| '''8.8.17 Structured Loitering''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''16'''
|-
| '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD)''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || '''26'''
|-
|-
| '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity''' || ★☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ☆☆☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★☆☆☆ || '''26'''
|-
| '''8.8.20 Big Whisper Theory''' || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★☆☆☆☆ || '''27'''  
|-
| '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory''' || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || '''35'''  
|-
|-
| '''8.8.22 Kinetic Substrate Model''' || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★★ || '''39'''
|-
|-
| '''8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics''' || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★☆ || ★★★☆☆ || ★★☆☆☆ || ★★★★★ || ★★★★☆ || '''27'''
|-

&lt;!-- put an empty line here --&gt;

|}

''Legend:''  
''EA = Empirical Adequacy IC = Internal Consistency PP = Predictive Power CC = Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility  ''
''CS = Conceptual Simplicity HV = Heuristic Value HP = Historical/Philosophical Insight MR = Mathematical Rigor''

''Note:'' '''Reality Impact Factor''' is included under '''Empirical Adequacy''', and '''Causal Coherence''' under '''Internal Consistency''', to preserve the 8-criterion structure.

== '''8.7 Requesting Detailed Justification''' ==

“Somebody” interested in the full motivation for a theory’s score—criterion by criterion—can obtain this by:

1. Visiting the '''discussion page''' of this Wikiversity chapter.
  
2. Mentioning the theory by name and explicitly asking for the detailed breakdown.
  
3. Receiving an AI-generated or authored comment elaborating why each star rating was assigned. 

These ratings are transparent and intended to support critical evaluation and ongoing refinement of both established and alternative cosmological theories. Constructive feedback, new data, or arguments may lead to adjustments in the scores, provided clear reasoning is presented.

If a contributor or author does not agree with the evaluation or prefers not to have their theory represented under this framework, they may request that all related content and ratings for that theory be removed. This ensures that participation remains voluntary and respectful of intellectual ownership.

'''Mainstream theories are subject to the same critical standard.'''  
If someone presents a reasoned objection to the current star ratings of a widely accepted theory (e.g. General Relativity, Big Bang), their explanation will be reviewed. If the argument is well-founded, ChatGPT may generate a revised evaluation. Both the original and alternative viewpoints can be documented transparently if needed.

If you want to submit a '''Rating Rebuttal''', please use the template provided on the &quot;Discuss&quot; button here above.

== '''8.8 Detailed Evaluations of Theories''' ==

This section will be expanded progressively as new theories are added. Each evaluation is generated in collaboration with ChatGPT, based on a standardized set of eight criteria defined in Chapter 1. This approach allows for clear, consistent, and rapid assessment of both mainstream and non-mainstream cosmological theories within minutes.

=== '''8.8.1 General Relativity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity General Relativity]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Matches a wide range of observations: gravitational lensing, GPS corrections, perihelion precession, black hole dynamics, and gravitational waves. Supported by multiple experiments. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Highly consistent within its differential geometric framework. Built upon Einstein's field equations with tensor calculus. Few internal contradictions, though extensions (e.g. quantum gravity) face challenges. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Successfully predicted gravitational redshift, time dilation, frame-dragging, and gravitational waves. Continues to guide observations in astrophysics. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with cosmology and astrophysics. Some tension with quantum theory. Less integrated with planetary geology or biology. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex mathematical structure makes it less intuitive. Conceptually abstract (spacetime curvature, geodesics). Clarity improves with education, but simplicity is low. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired vast developments in cosmology, black hole theory, and relativistic astrophysics. Foundation for modern gravitational physics. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Deep philosophical implications about space, time, and causality. Represents a major shift from Newtonian absolute space. Influenced 20th-century philosophy of science. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Built upon advanced mathematics: Riemannian geometry, Einstein field equations, tensor calculus. Equations are precise, formal, and deeply embedded in differential geometry. || ★★★★★
|}

'''Total: 39/40'''

---

=== '''8.8.2 Newtonian Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Accurately describes gravitational interactions for most macroscopic systems (planets, satellites, projectiles) under low-speed, weak-field conditions. Deviates in extreme conditions (e.g. near black holes). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent with inverse-square law and Newton's laws of motion. Assumes instantaneous action at a distance, which conflicts with relativity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts planetary orbits, tides, escape velocities, and Keplerian motion. Fails for relativistic effects (e.g. Mercury’s precession, gravitational lensing). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Well-integrated in classical mechanics, astronomy, and engineering. Less compatible with modern cosmology or relativistic frameworks. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple and intuitive: gravity as a force between masses. Easily grasped and widely taught. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspired centuries of scientific discovery and classical mechanics. Still used in teaching and engineering. Limited in modern theoretical development. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Founded classical physics. Major leap in scientific method and mathematical modeling. Paved the way for Enlightenment-era science. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Clear and elegant use of calculus and vector algebra (e.g. &lt;math&gt;F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;). Highly accessible and historically groundbreaking, but lacks deeper geometric or relativistic structures.
 || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 33/40'''

=== '''8.8.3 MOND (Modified Newtonian Dynamics) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Newtonian_dynamics Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND)]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Fits galactic rotation curves without invoking dark matter. Matches Tully-Fisher relation. Performance weakens at cluster and cosmological scales. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Original formulation is non-relativistic and phenomenological. Several relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) exist but introduce complexity and fine-tuning. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts galaxy dynamics from baryonic matter alone. Less predictive at larger scales or in non-galactic contexts. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Primarily astrophysical. Some tension with cosmology, structure formation, and gravitational lensing. Not aligned with particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Simple at galactic scale: modifies acceleration below a threshold \(a_0\). Extensions are less intuitive. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Challenges dark matter paradigm and motivates alternate gravity models. Sparked theoretical and observational debate. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Offers a conceptual challenge to Newton/Einstein gravity. Philosophically provocative, but limited historical lineage. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs interpolating functions and modified Poisson equations. Relativistic extensions (e.g. TeVeS) involve tensor-vector-scalar frameworks. Rigorous in parts, but lacks unified formalism. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 28/40'''

=== '''8.8.4 Emergent Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_gravity Emergent / Entropic Gravity]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Attempts to account for galactic rotation without dark matter by linking gravity to entropy and information. Some results match MOND-like behavior, but broad observational support remains limited. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical framework draws from thermodynamics, holography, and information theory. Conceptually coherent, but not fully developed as a unified physical model. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers qualitative insights but lacks precise predictive capabilities in most contexts. No wide adoption for simulations or system modeling. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates ideas from black hole thermodynamics, quantum information, and spacetime geometry. Weak integration with observational astronomy or geology. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Abstract and speculative. Concepts like entropic forces and holographic screens are not intuitive for most readers. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates discussion about the nature of spacetime and gravity. Has inspired new theoretical directions in quantum gravity and information theory. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Philosophically intriguing: redefines gravity as emergent rather than fundamental. Links to ideas from Bekenstein and Hawking. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Relies on concepts from thermodynamics (e.g. entropy gradients), statistical mechanics, and quantum gravity. Uses integral relations and variational principles, but lacks a standardized set of equations for general use. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== 8.8.5 Big Bang Theory – AI Rating Summary=== 
''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang Big Bang Theory]
See Talk Page (Discuss) for additional information about the rating.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains redshift, CMB, and light-element abundances, but tension with galaxy formation, Hubble tension, and large-scale structure persists || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Internally consistent within ΛCDM and general relativity, but inflation and dark energy introduce ad hoc elements. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted CMB, light elements, and cosmic redshift. Less successful on structure formation, galaxy rotation curves, and dark sector dynamics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Supports astrophysics and high-energy particle physics, but lacks integration with geology, paleontology, or biological evolution. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Not intuitive: requires singularity, inflation, and dark entities. Conceptually complex and metaphysically opaque in origin and boundary conditions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Drove cosmological and astrophysical research, but locked into a narrow framework limiting alternative cosmologies. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Provides a cosmic origin model but raises unresolved questions: what banged, why, and what came before? || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || ses GR, FLRW metrics, and quantum field assumptions. Inflationary dynamics lack unified mathematical formulation. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.6 Steady State Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state_model Steady State Cosmology]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Early successes with radio‐source counts, but contradicted by the cosmic microwave background, evolving galaxy populations, and quasar statistics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within the “perfect cosmological principle,” requiring continuous matter creation at a fixed rate. Logical but invokes an ad-hoc creation field (C-field). || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicted constant large-scale density and specific radio‐source number counts; few successful novel predictions beyond its initial scope. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Limited overlap with modern astrophysics and particle physics; conflicts with nucleosynthesis and CMB observations. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively simple: Universe is homogeneous in space **and** time, avoiding an initial singularity. Minimal parameter set. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Historically spurred observational tests that ultimately favored Big Bang models; now mainly of pedagogical interest. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Embodies the perfect cosmological principle and continuous-creation idea, provoking debates on temporality and cosmological assumptions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs Friedmann-like solutions with a creation term; uses relativistic field equations but lacks the richer formal development of ΛCDM or GR extensions. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.7 Big Crunch – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch Big Crunch]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Once considered viable if cosmic density exceeded the critical value. Current observations (accelerating expansion, dark energy) contradict its key assumptions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretically consistent as a time-reversed Big Bang within general relativity. Requires high matter density and no (or reversing) dark energy. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts a decelerating expansion turning to collapse. Testable in principle, but not supported by current data. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Compatible with thermodynamic and relativistic models of entropy and time symmetry, but unsupported by astronomical data. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Intuitively mirrors Big Bang, offering closure and symmetry. Simple in concept, but difficult to reconcile with observed acceleration. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Motivated theoretical discussion on cosmological fate and cyclic models. Limited influence in current cosmology. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Explores cosmological temporality and finitude. Once a philosophically compelling counterbalance to eternal expansion. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on time-reversible solutions to Friedmann equations and relativistic cosmology. Rigorous within GR but not extended in modern frameworks. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.8 Big Bounce – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bounce Big Bounce]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || No direct observational evidence yet. Some loop quantum cosmology models suggest signatures in the CMB, but these remain speculative. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Offers a logically coherent alternative to singularity-based models. Dependent on quantum gravity frameworks (e.g. loop quantum gravity) that remain under development. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Provides potential testable differences in early universe structure and CMB fluctuations. Predictions are still uncertain and model-dependent. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges general relativity with quantum mechanics. Limited overlap with geology or observational astronomy. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Complex and abstract. The idea of a cyclical universe is conceptually appealing, but quantum corrections are not intuitive. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates exploration of singularity resolution and quantum gravity cosmologies. Encourages investigation of pre-Big Bang conditions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Resonates with ancient cyclical cosmologies and philosophical ideas of eternal recurrence. Reframes the question of origins. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Based on extensions of Friedmann equations using loop quantum corrections or other quantum gravity approaches. Some models are mathematically formal, but the field is still unsettled. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 24/40'''

=== '''8.8.9 Cosmic Influx Theory (CIT) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Ruud_Loeffen/Cosmic_Influx_Theory(3) Cosmic Influx Theory]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Strong match with observed planetary structuring, VRMS-based system modeling, and geological trends like daylength and expansion. Supported by exoplanet data and disk morphology (e.g. HD 163296). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Equations and constants (e.g. κ₍CIT₎, (γ−1)/4π) are logically coherent. Internal derivations remain consistent across cosmological and planetary domains. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers specific predictions (e.g. Trappist-1 preferred distance and orbital period). Some predictions still await observational confirmation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Integrates cosmology, geology, biology, and observational astronomy. Compatible with expanding Earth, daylength data, and ring formation physics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Introduces new yet intuitive ideas like influx and preferred distances. Avoids abstract constructs like dark matter/energy. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires re-evaluation of mainstream assumptions, links to overlooked or discarded theories (e.g. Le Sage, expansion tectonics). || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with early gravitational push models and continuous creation ideas, offering philosophical alternatives to entropy-based models. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Provides original equations (e.g. for &lt;math&gt;D_{\text{pref}}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;G = \frac{\gamma - 1}{4\pi}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\kappa = \frac{v_{\text{RMS}}^2}{c^4}&lt;/math&gt;) and consistent dimensional analysis. Excel-based datasets link math to observations. Lacks field-theoretic formalism.
 || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 33/40'''

=== '''8.8.10 Spiral Cosmology – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/103005946/Cosmology_as_Spiral_Evolution Spiral Cosmology on Academia.edu]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers visual and structural explanations for spiral galaxy morphology and cosmic rotation patterns. Less directly tied to quantitative data or tested predictions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Conceptually consistent in proposing self-similar spiral evolution at multiple scales, but lacks a developed dynamic or energetic framework. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Suggests qualitative evolutionary stages and possible cyclic features, but does not provide specific numerical predictions. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Makes symbolic and philosophical connections across cosmology, biology, and culture. Scientific integration with physical fields is minimal. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Emphasizes intuitive and visual structures (e.g. spirals), which are accessible but may oversimplify physical complexity. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Stimulates reflection on cosmic structure, symmetry, and recursion. Encourages reinterpretation of known forms (e.g. galaxies, DNA, hurricanes). || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reconnects with ancient and Renaissance cosmologies linking form and function across scales. Offers metaphysical resonance. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Utilizes geometric symbolism (e.g. spiral ratios, golden mean) but lacks physical equations or dynamical systems modeling. No quantitative derivations. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.11 Topological Field Framework – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393122856_A_Topological_Field_Framework_for_Particle_Mass_Gauge_Interactions_and_Emergent_Gravity A Topological Field Framework on ResearchGate]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Proposes a geometric origin of particle properties and fundamental constants, but lacks direct comparison with observational or experimental datasets. Empirical testing is suggested but not yet demonstrated. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Builds a coherent and logically structured model grounded in topology and pressure gradients. Concepts are well integrated, with minimal contradictions. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers a pathway to derive constants such as G, c, and Λ from topology and boundary conditions. However, quantitative predictions are still under development or pending validation. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges gravitational theory, particle physics, and topology. Aligns with ideas in quantum geometry, though not yet embedded in mainstream formulations. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Dense but conceptually focused. Uses field and pressure analogies to unify gravity and gauge interactions, though the abstract nature may limit accessibility. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Provides an original and stimulating approach to unify physical constants via geometry. Encourages rethinking of foundational assumptions in physics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Revives geometrical unification ideals from early 20th-century physics and connects them to modern field-based ontology. Philosophically grounded. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs differential geometry, topological mapping, and field pressure modeling. Mathematical structure is present, but derivations are at a conceptual stage. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 27/40'''

=== '''8.8.12 Conformal Gravity – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989ApJ...342..635M Exact Vacuum Solution to Conformal Weyl Gravity and Galactic Rotation Curves]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Successfully models galactic rotation curves and lensing effects without invoking dark matter. However, challenges remain regarding early-universe phenomena and the CMB. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Mathematically self-consistent within its conformal symmetry framework. Gravitational dynamics are derived cleanly from a fourth-order field equation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Accurately predicts galaxy-scale observations. However, extrapolations to cosmological scales require further development and empirical testing. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Intersects with quantum field theory through conformal invariance and offers alternatives to ΛCDM. Limited overlap with standard model particle physics. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Builds from a well-defined symmetry principle (conformal invariance). Some complexity arises due to fourth-order derivatives and unfamiliar constructs. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Encourages reconsideration of gravitational assumptions and dark matter. Inspires new theoretical directions and alternative metrics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Connects with earlier Weyl geometry and symmetry-based models. Philosophically significant as a symmetry-driven alternative to general relativity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous derivations based on conformal symmetry and higher-order field equations. Technically sophisticated. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 28/40'''

=== '''8.8.13 Quasi-Steady State Cosmology (QSSC) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/pram/053/06/1093-1104 The Quasi-Steady State Cosmology: Theory and Observations – Pramana Journal]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Offers explanations for redshift, large-scale structure, and quasar distributions. However, it faces difficulties matching the observed CMB spectrum and primordial element abundances. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Theoretical foundations are logically constructed around a C-field and creation events. Internally coherent but relies on non-standard mechanisms not universally accepted. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Makes unique predictions about cosmic cycles, matter creation, and galaxy evolution. Some predictions remain qualitative or are difficult to test. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts to integrate cosmology with continuous creation physics. However, the C-field concept is not aligned with standard field theory or particle physics. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Proposes an intuitive cyclical model of cosmic evolution. Some components, such as the C-field, are abstract and complex to formalize. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Offers a provocative alternative to the Big Bang. Stimulates re-evaluation of singularity-based models and encourages cyclic interpretations. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Extends the steady-state philosophy of Hoyle. Challenges the singular origin narrative with philosophical depth and continuity. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Uses mathematical models for cyclic expansion and C-field dynamics. However, these are not widely adopted or fully developed in mainstream literature. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.14 Dynamic Universe (Tuomo Suntola) – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://physicsfoundations.org/suntola/dynamic-universe Dynamic Universe – Physics Foundations Society]  
''Additional source:'' [https://www.academia.edu/37149633/The_Dynamic_Universe_Toward_a_unified_picture_of_physical_reality The Dynamic Universe on Academia.edu]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Provides testable predictions for cosmological redshift, Hubble parameter, and time dilation without invoking dark energy. Several predictions align well with observational data, though not yet widely confirmed. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The model is highly self-consistent, based on a single zero-energy principle and evolving 4-sphere geometry. Internally coherent and logically derived. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Predicts cosmological parameters from first principles, including a time-evolving H₀ and expansion behavior. Some predictions differ from ΛCDM but remain observationally accessible. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Attempts unification of relativity, cosmology, and quantum phenomena under a geometric framework. Still under integration with conventional physics models. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Built on a single geometric principle with minimal assumptions. Clear in its physical logic, though unfamiliar to those trained in standard GR or QFT. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires a rethinking of time, space, and energy conservation. Offers a conceptually elegant reformulation of cosmic dynamics. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Echoes Machian ideas and Einstein’s early search for balance models. Challenges the notion of spacetime curvature as fundamental. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Employs rigorous geometric derivations and differential equations. Mathematical structure is well-developed, though outside conventional formalisms. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 30/40'''


=== '''8.8.15 Multiverse Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse Multiverse – Wikipedia]  
''Additional source:'' [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-the-multiverse-really-exist/ Scientific American – Does the Multiverse Really Exist?]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Lacks direct observational support. No known experiment can confirm or refute the existence of other universes. Some indirect inferences arise from inflationary models or quantum theory, but none are conclusive. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Varies by formulation. Quantum Many-Worlds, eternal inflation, and string theory landscapes are logically coherent within their frameworks, but depend on assumptions not testable in this universe. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Extremely weak. Most formulations make no concrete predictions for our universe that differ from single-universe models. Some argue it &quot;predicts&quot; everything, making it unfalsifiable. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Connects to quantum theory, inflationary cosmology, string theory, and philosophy. However, lacks integration with empirical fields like astronomy, geology, or planetary science. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Conceptually speculative and often confusing. Raises questions about what counts as &quot;real&quot; and how probability works across unobservable universes. Not parsimonious. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || High inspiration in theoretical physics and cosmology. Stimulates debate on fine-tuning, origins, and the limits of science. Has generated many models and new lines of thought. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Reflects an evolution of thinking about cosmological plurality. Raises deep metaphysical questions about causality, determinism, and reality. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Strong in some versions (e.g. string theory landscapes, quantum branches), but speculative assumptions extend beyond tested mathematics. || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 23/40'''

=== '''8.8.16 Theory of Universality – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Primary source:'' [https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jap/papers/Vol11-issue2/Series-3/D1102031953.pdf K.S. Narayana – Theory of Universality (IOSR-JAP, 2019)]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Some known constants (e.g. Hubble parameter, proton lifetime) are reproduced numerically, but without grounding in observational datasets or statistical validation. No empirical testing methodology is provided. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The derivations follow internal logic, but some assumptions—like matter exceeding light speed or redefining constants—conflict with established physics and dimensional coherence. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || No distinct or testable predictions are formulated. The theory remains mostly retrospective in deriving values, not prospective in forecasting new results. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Conflicts with key principles in general relativity, quantum theory, and thermodynamics. It does not integrate with empirical fields or build bridges across scientific domains. || ★☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || The theory aims at unification but uses complex constructs with speculative interpretations. Lacks parsimony and clear explanatory logic. || ★★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires rethinking of fundamental constants and offers alternative pathways to explore force unification. Useful for stimulating discussion despite lack of empirical grounding. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Emphasizes classical ideals of universal unity. Raises metaphysical questions about origins and physical laws. Philosophically bold, though scientifically unorthodox. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Includes numerous equations and derivations, but lacks clarity in notation, dimensional checks, and formal structure. Relies on fitting numerical coincidences. || ★★☆☆☆
|}

'''Total: 16/40'''

=== '''8.8.18 Topological GeometroDynamics (TGD) – AI Rating Summary''' ===
''Primary sources:''
[https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024I.pdf]
[https://tgdtheory.fi/public_html/articles/TGD2024II.pdf]

&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Criterion'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Description'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;'''Rating'''&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Empirical Adequacy'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;TGD is rich in theoretical proposals—such as predictions about coupling constants, p-adic physics, and quantized criticality—but lacks direct empirical validation. Claims are often qualitative or philosophical, with few testable predictions implemented or tested.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Internal Consistency'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;The theory presents a highly consistent internal structure based on an 8-dimensional embedding space (M⁴ × CP₂), number theory, and a unified view of interactions. The coherence across domains (cosmology, quantum physics, biology) is impressive.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Predictive Power'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;TGD makes bold theoretical predictions about particle masses, cosmological evolution, and even consciousness; however, these are often indirect, qualitative, or mathematically untested in standard frameworks.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Integrates gravitation, particle physics, cosmology, biology, and neuroscience under a single geometric and number-theoretical framework. Strong interdisciplinary ambition, though not well integrated with conventional theories in these domains.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Conceptually intricate and difficult for non-specialists. TGD proposes radically new metaphysical and mathematical foundations that are not easily intuitive or accessible.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★☆☆☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Heuristic Value'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Inspires novel questions about the unification of forces, the role of number theory, and consciousness in physics. Has stimulated a wide body of internal development and speculative exploration.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Historical and Philosophical Insight'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Offers a deep philosophical stance on geometry, consciousness, time, and mathematical existence. Rich in insight about foundational structures and conceptual shifts in physics.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''Mathematical Rigor'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Employs advanced mathematics: higher-dimensional manifolds, p-adics, number theory, and embedding techniques. Formal structure is evident but not presented using conventional field-theoretic rigor or peer-reviewed derivations.&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;★★★★☆&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt;
'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.19 Emergence in Holographic Scenarios for Gravity. AI Rating Summary'''=== 
''Related link:'' 
https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1501.04278

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The paper explores conceptual frameworks (AdS/CFT, Verlinde’s entropic gravity) grounded in mathematically consistent formulations, but lacks direct empirical evidence. The authors acknowledge that these are interpretative models with no experimental confirmation yet. || ☆★☆☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The arguments are logically coherent, well-structured, and reflect a clear understanding of dualities and emergence. The comparison of exact vs approximate duality is internally consistent and philosophically careful.|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || The paper itself does not propose novel testable predictions. Verlinde’s approach, while promising, remains qualitatively suggestive rather than quantitatively predictive in this context. The AdS/CFT discussion is framed mostly in conceptual terms.|| ☆☆☆☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Strong interdisciplinary approach: integrates quantum gravity, thermodynamics, information theory, and philosophy of science. The renormalization group, entropy, and coarse-graining are applied beyond physics into conceptual analysis. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Despite complexity, the authors strive for conceptual clarity—especially in distinguishing duality, emergence, and fundamentality. The simplification of Verlinde's proposal using thermodynamics is notably clear. ||★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Very high: the paper reframes holography and gravity in emergent terms, which inspires alternative perspectives and has influenced many researchers. It facilitates new approaches like entropic gravity and bulk/boundary reinterpretation|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Outstanding. The paper provides an insightful discussion of the evolution of the holographic principle, AdS/CFT duality, and Verlinde’s entropic gravity. Strong engagement with philosophy of emergence and reduction. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || While based on mathematically rigorous sources (e.g., AdS/CFT correspondence), the article itself is not a formal mathematical exposition. It leans more on conceptual and philosophical clarity than detailed derivations || ★★★☆☆
|}

'''Total: 26/40'''

=== '''8.8.20 The Big Whisper Theory – AI Rating Summary'''===   
''Related link:'' [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394407414_Big_Whisper_Theory_for_Ai_Review Big Whisper Theory for AI Review]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || Explains early galaxy formation and spiral arm dynamics well. Lacks empirical confirmation for predictions like Venusian life and structural layering. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || Maintains a coherent structural logic using separation and damaged energy. Some analogies and terminology could be clarified further. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Offers original predictions on matter behavior and galactic motion, but lacks mathematical formulation or falsifiable tests. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || Bridges concepts from cosmology, particle physics, and philosophy, but not well integrated into established theoretical or experimental science. || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || Rich analogies aid understanding, but dense explanations and reversed perspectives make accessibility difficult. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || Inspires reevaluation of structure, force blending, and inverted modeling. High potential for conceptual innovation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || Highlights structural errors in mainstream views. Uses Gödel and linguistic analysis to reframe foundational assumptions. || ★★★★★
|-
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Offers philosophical critique of mathematical tools and singularities, but lacks any equations, derivations, or formalism required for scientific validation. || ★☆☆☆☆

|}

'''Total: 27/40'''

=== '''8.8.21 Vibrational Theory – AI Rating Summary''' ===

''Related link:'' [https://independent.academia.edu/CarlGrimes23 Vibrational Theory by Carl Grimes]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || VT offers testable predictions from its Python model (e.g., void growth, gravitational wells). It is consistent with large-scale structure and some galactic behaviors, but awaits broad observational cross-validation. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Internal Consistency''' || VT is built from first principles with a mathematically structured field framework and harmonic logic. Its modules (DE, DM, consciousness, time) interlock coherently. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || The Python model simulates black hole dynamics, void formation, field collapse, and consciousness-linked evolution — going well beyond curve-fitting. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || VT integrates physics, consciousness, and cosmology. While this broadens its scope, it introduces tensions with established domains (e.g. quantum field theory, GR). || ★★★☆☆
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || While ambitious and elegant in parts, VT is highly layered and mathematically dense, which may hinder accessibility for general researchers. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || VT inspires rethinking of time, gravity, consciousness, and black holes from a unified vibrational field basis. It is a major conceptual departure. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || VT challenges metaphysical assumptions of Big Bang cosmology and connects physical processes with epistemic frameworks — including scaling critique. || ★★★★☆
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || The three submitted Python modules show internal consistency, symbolic integration, and numerical resolution of coupled field equations (Ψ, φ_DM). || ★★★★★
|}
=== '''8.8.22 The Kinetic Substrate Model (KSM V4) – AI Rating Summary''' ===  
''Related link:'' [https://www.academia.edu/144897760/Remembering_a_Forgotten_Past_the_Quest_for_the_Theory_of_Everything_The_Kinetic_Substrate_Model
]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Criterion''' !! '''Description''' !! '''Rating'''
|-
| '''Empirical Adequacy''' || The October 2025 edition expands empirical anchors with quantitative examples: planetary internal heat fluxes (Neptune, Saturn), supernova Ia redshift fits (R² ≈ 0.985), and laboratory-scale implications for photon dispersion and density-dependent G variation. These reinforce the model’s exponential-attenuation law as a unifying description from lab to cosmic scale. || ★★★★★
|- 
| '''Internal Consistency''' || The revised edition eliminates prior ambiguities by formalizing the momentum-flux tensor and dimensional checks at every stage. The causal chain—substrate flux → field stress → macro-phenomena—remains logically unbroken. No circular reasoning or undefined constants remain. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Predictive Power''' || Explicit falsifiable predictions include:
• A logarithmic redshift–distance law 
𝐷
=
(
𝑐
/
𝐻
)
ln
⁡
(
1
+
𝑧
)
D=(c/H)ln(1+z).
• Finite-healing-length γ-ray dispersion measurable in burst timing.
• Subtle, geometry-linked variability of G.
• Exponential attenuation replacing GR singularities.
Each prediction is numerically defined and observationally accessible. 
|| ★★★★★
|-
| '''Cross-Disciplinary Compatibility''' || KSM aligns with superfluid and condensed-matter analogues (BEC hydrodynamics, vortex knots), geophysical heat-flow data, and cosmological energy-balance principles. Its momentum-transport equations could extend naturally into plasma, atmospheric, and nuclear domains. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Conceptual Clarity and Simplicity''' || All physical effects derive from one postulate: a quantized, compressible kinetic substrate. The narrative and diagrams in this edition make the mechanism intuitively clear while preserving depth. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Heuristic Value''' || The text suggests avenues in gravito-acoustics, photon transport, substrate density mapping, and re-evaluation of cosmic expansion. Its unified transport model provokes re-examination of field theory and vacuum structure across disciplines. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Historical and Philosophical Insight''' || The October 2025 edition deepens historical integration, restoring the lineage from Fatio → Kelvin → Maxwell → Whittaker → BEC physics. Philosophically, it re-centers causality and continuity in natural law, bridging classical realism and quantum formalism. || ★★★★★
|-
| '''Mathematical Rigor''' || Transport equations are consistently derived from first principles; new appendices provide complete tensor relations and unit analyses. Boundary-condition treatments are explicit and verifiable. || ★★★★☆
|}

'''Total: 39/40'''

=== 8.8.23 Premorpha Dynamics: A Unified Theory of Space, Time, Matter, Consciousness, and Cosmic Emergence – AI Rating Summary ===
'''&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;Related link:''' https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.32533008
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!'''Criterion'''
!'''Description'''
!'''Rating'''
|-
|'''Empirical Adequacy'''
|Proposes numerous experiments and predictions, but no experimental confirmations yet. Most claims remain unverified and require empirical testing.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Internal Consistency'''
|Concepts such as Premorpha Field, I-Morph Energy, Field Locks, Gravity Compression, and Luxa Flare are applied consistently throughout the framework.
|★★★★★
|-
|'''Mathematical Rigor'''
|Introduces symbolic equations and conceptual relationships, but lacks derivations, dimensional analysis, predictive calculations, and quantitative validation.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Explanatory Power'''
|Attempts to explain matter, gravity, light, inertia, consciousness, cosmology, wormholes, and biological phenomena within a single framework.
|★★★★☆
|-
|'''Simplicity &amp; Parsimony'''
|Uses a unified-field approach but introduces several new entities and concepts (Premorpha, I-Morph, Luxa, Field Locks), reducing overall simplicity.
|★★★☆☆
|-
|'''Compatibility'''
|Significantly departs from General Relativity, Quantum Field Theory, the Standard Model, and conventional cosmology without yet reproducing their quantitative successes.
|★★☆☆☆
|-
|'''Originality'''
|Highly original framework. Concepts such as Luxa Flare cosmology, frequency-based universes, and consciousness-field coupling are novel and imaginative.
|★★★★★
|-
|'''Future Potential'''
|Provides numerous test proposals and technological visions, including field medicine, propulsion, teleportation, and unified field engineering.
|★★★★☆
|-
|
|
|'''Total: 27 / 40'''
|}

== '''8.9 Proposed theories that will be evaluated soon''' ==

none

'''◀ [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_7:_Cosmological_Parameters_and_Universal_Constants|Previous]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories|Main Page]] | [[User:Ruud_Loeffen/AI-Assisted_Evaluation_of_Cosmological_Theories/Chapter_9:_Documentation_and_Transparency|Next ▶]]'''</text>
      <sha1>dnhfte9dioyqod82ky2kpk9c46l0xk8</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Just sustainability transitions: a living review</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>326060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816561</id>
      <parentid>2816230</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T08:24:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>introduction</comment>
      <origin>2816561</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="78884" sha1="dxadk6mku4t93969pbccg2xkk7ts6iv" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Results ====
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable).

== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>dxadk6mku4t93969pbccg2xkk7ts6iv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816564</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T08:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Methodology */</comment>
      <origin>2816564</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="79787" sha1="2yy3siipjnz9wbyu94iw9j75eu9d1ps" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Results ====
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable).

== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>2yy3siipjnz9wbyu94iw9j75eu9d1ps</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816565</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T08:51:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="80616" sha1="lqeu0oe63kkhfqzafmvpxo7v5z8247v" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
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|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology.

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Results ====
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable).

== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>lqeu0oe63kkhfqzafmvpxo7v5z8247v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816566</id>
      <parentid>2816565</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:09:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Results */</comment>
      <origin>2816566</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="81999" sha1="onz13gfn47bf7p5igmbwf3ia0ehn796" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology.

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

=== Results ===
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.'''


Advantages and limitations compared to existing solutions: 

Compared to reference management softwares  (Zenodo, Mendeley…) :

Compared to knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) : 

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive. An important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation in 2014, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex created in 2022 are taking on the task to create an exhaistive catalogue of all scholarly production.  


== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>onz13gfn47bf7p5igmbwf3ia0ehn796</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816567</id>
      <parentid>2816566</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:18:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Results */</comment>
      <origin>2816567</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82446" sha1="keb22pc5eo7ln0mz2lp94irbueehqof" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology.

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

=== Results ===
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.'''

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialisted queries. 

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex created in 2022, are now taking on the task of creating an exhaustive catalogue of all scholarly production.  
== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>keb22pc5eo7ln0mz2lp94irbueehqof</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816571</id>
      <parentid>2816567</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:27:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Advantages of Wikidata */</comment>
      <origin>2816571</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82541" sha1="ii3fxy3593c2y9z2au1lrudwpe8xefi" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
|
|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology.

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

=== Results ===
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.'''

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. 

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production.  
== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>ii3fxy3593c2y9z2au1lrudwpe8xefi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2816582</id>
      <parentid>2816571</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-23T09:48:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Limitations of Wikidata */</comment>
      <origin>2816582</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="83753" sha1="ra3nefeh55kv5hs61ts7m0x13sna570" xml:space="preserve">== Contributors ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling
|-
|Amélie Pereira
|
|
|Meta-data enrichement
|-
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|
|
|
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

==== The problem of academic information overload ====
Global scientific output doubles every nine years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

==== The problem of knowledge synthesis ====
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

==== The problem of scientific results dissemination ====
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

=== Definition of living review ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. 

[[wikidata:Q33002955|Knowledge graphs]], a structured representation of knowledge in the form of a graph, linked together by relationships that encode explicit meanings between these entities, are very suitable for conducting living systematic reviews&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but &quot;not yet ready for use&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The living review method relevant for just transition because it includes topic such as energy democracy which necessitate transdisciplinarity and consolidation of fragmented literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===  Definitions of just transition : ===
* «a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society’. »&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;.


The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
 
=== Definition of Procedural justice ===
Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation their consultation or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;.     

== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal will be to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, Wikipedia and other open-science infrastructures. We collected and enriched bibliographic data and extracted research result data to build a knowledge graph, we then experimented relevant visualization of this graph and are writing our report on this Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, experimenting a scientific writing compatible with the linked open data ideal.

=== Wikidata and the semantic web ===&lt;!-- Add introduction to what wikidata is and how the triplet works in a pedagogical manner

Example of good description here : https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k#fig1
 --&gt;
&quot;A knowledge graph is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Building a corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to import academic references into Wikidata, test '''Hypothesis 1''' and explore the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas but are generally not used as part of a literature review methodology.

=== Database search ===
We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article screening ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies, initiatives, cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors or included justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files resulting from this step are available at : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
To import the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in the database. Next we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through meta-data enrichement ===&lt;!-- Add : What is meta-data enrichement --&gt;

Existing review try to classify existing articles according to various criteria such as industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; We selected the most relevant properties in Wikidata to reflect these classifications : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe its geographical focus.

==== Main subjects ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q131444737&amp;redirect=no Q131444737]
|community energy
|[redirection]
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}
&lt;!-- include all below items using the wikidata link template
 --&gt;

Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords.

==== Study types ====
Our review included only litterature reviews. We first read abstracts to identify all the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/?item=Q2412849&amp;property=P279&amp;mode=reverse different types of litterature reviews] present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. The types of reviews were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|[...]
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}Then, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} of each articles based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Research site ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Authors ====
We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers: following a query, it categorises scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

=== Results ===
The table listing all the papers in the sample can be visualized [https://tabernacle.toolforge.org/?#/tab/manual/Q137211155%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306483%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901181%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901182%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901183%0A%0A%0AQ114306476%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901184%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901185%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901186%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901187%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901188%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137210566%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114306511%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901191%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901192%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901193%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ135979013%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901195%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901196%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901197%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ136447761%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901199%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129652515%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901201%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901202%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901203%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901204%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901205%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901206%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901207%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ129203992%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ114197507%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901161%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901209%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901210%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901211%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ11420462%0A%0AQ137901213%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ104887325%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901162%0A%0A%0AQ137901163%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901164%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901215%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901216%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901217%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ115448818%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901218%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901219%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901220%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901221%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901222%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901223%0A%0A%0AQ137901224%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901225%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901226%0A%0A%0A%0AQ137901227%0A%0A%0AQ137901182/Len%3BP921%3BP6153%3BP8363%3BP50 here] (be careful if you are logged into Wikidata as the table is editable). In addition, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1:''' '''Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.'''

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative ontology as well as its interoperability. 

A notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, &quot;energy transition&quot; was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Contrary to institutional Thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. 

The same observation is valid for the addition of properties. Wikidata allows to enter more detail about each academic articles. 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and des not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base while wikidata is a generalist database, they allow to take notes and highlight the content of the texts. Wikidata is too general to allow this and finding the corpus of item one is working on require specialised queries. 

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount o bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data on wikidata congested queries Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. However, these catalogue's data are not always precise enough to answer to the need of researchers.  

==== Recommandations ====
&gt;Developp/maintain plugins and extensions to connect more specialised softwares (Zotero, Wikibase, Omeka) with wikidata. These extensions should help retreive data from wikidata (eg. autocompletion), but also help contribute to wikidata with export features.

== Modelling knowledge ==
Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the present study, we explored how concept map can be used to model the knowledge present in the paper we selected. 

[define knowledge modelling]

==== Wikidata ontology ====
Wikidata &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It also supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata, even though scientific knowledge is preferred.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

See more on membership properties : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties

See the discussion on cause modelling : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en

==== Conceptual modelling ====
We first reflected on what kind of wikidata properties could be used to represent concepts and theories in wikidata. Capturing the content of a concept is not straightforward and there are various approaches coming from psychology and philosophy on the matter&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt; we summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
* Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
* Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}}.
* Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}.
* Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can create it before really knowing what all its properties will be.
* Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Categorization and conceptualisation practices in management sciences ====
In management sciences « systematic categorizing is the best and perhaps only method for clearing up semantic confusion, management scholars never take the classical approaches to categorizing that facilitated tremendous progress in the physical sciences, and seldomly build on extant categorial schemes. »&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars discussed how conceptualization should be done&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|547x547px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes.   

Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding (e.g. grounded theory) to identify themes and sub-themes.   

However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.  

*

==== Causal networks ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; Researchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships:
* {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|P1479}} : it is difficult to identify single causes for social phenomenons, many factors having an effect on the subject item will likely be contributing factors

== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ==
We started by experimenting the modelling of concept by focusing on the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
* {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source to enter statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}}, using the paper as source. The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

Ontology challenges:
*{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}: concepts may have a dual nature because they designate at the same time an idea and the entity that this idea represent. Energy democracy is a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. 
*'''Process versus outcome :''' For material processes, the distinction between process and outcome is rather simple. For example, in Wikidata, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork), and this distinction is based on the criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;. However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes that do not have an end. Such processes are ongoing and outcomes cannot be separated as clearly.
* '''Ideal versus reality :''' Concepts do not have goals in themselves, but the reality they represent can have goals. To distinguish goals from the process to reach it, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes.
* '''Phenomenon versus theory :''' Wikidata current items are not really suited to model &quot;meta-research&quot; statements. For example, modelling the idea tha the literature on energy democracy is fragmented would require creating an item representing the energy democracy literature, not just energy democracy in general. Similarly, it can be difficult to model the chronological evolution of the definition of an idea (although it could be technically possible). It is hard to represent in Wikidata affirmations related to missing knowlege, propositions of untested hypothesis, critique of existing research or research agenda recommandations
* '''Origin of discourses versus origin of practices :''' To distinguish the causes of the concepts/discourses and the causes of the phenomenon itself, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movements promoting it.


Some of the statements we added may seem contradictory. However, Wikidata supports &quot;because statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept could be split into more precise concepts to distinguish the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it and the concrete initiatives implementing it. However, the current sources do not make this distinction for now. 

Other challenges
* Wikidata does not seem to be the best tool to model quantitative statements, for example, the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;. Including energy data in Wikidata require using or creating specific properties (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}})
* When concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, or {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}} as &quot;choice&quot; can refer to the availability of different options, or the decision process to chose among them.


Advantages : 

* Link toward unique identifiers for concepts, but also laws (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}})

== Interactions with the Wikidata community ==

* Some Wikidata contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in other languages such as Armenian or Slovenian.

== Data visualisation ==

=== Filter statements ===

* Visualize only statements using a specitic source. Example : https://w.wiki/PFqH
* Visualize only items which are part to the present project (require that all items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Mapping a concept ===
Scholia request &quot;topic in context&quot; : [https://query.wikidata.org/#%23%20tool%3A%20scholia%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20PREFIX%20target%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ14944319%3E%0A%23defaultView%3AGraph%0APREFIX%20wd%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wdt%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fprop%2Fdirect%2F%3E%0APREFIX%20wikibase%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwikiba.se%2Fontology%23%3E%0APREFIX%20rdf%3A%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F1999%2F02%2F22-rdf-syntax-ns%23%3E%0A%0ASELECT%20%3Fnode%20%3FnodeLabel%20%3FnodeImage%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeLabel%20%3FchildNodeImage%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fnode%20%3FchildNode%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28target%3A%20AS%20%3Fnode%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fp%20%3Fi%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3Fi%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FP%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20UNION%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3FchildNode%20%3Fnode%20%3Frgb%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20BIND%20%28%22EFFBD8%22%20AS%20%3Frgb%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20target%3A%20%3Fp%20%3FchildNode%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fx%20%3Fp%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20rdf%3Atype%20wikibase%3AProperty.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20FILTER%20%28STRSTARTS%28STR%28%3FchildNode%29%2C%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikidata.org%2Fentity%2FQ%22%29%29%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20LIMIT%205000%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3Fnodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fnode%20%3Fnodeclaim%20%3FnodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20SELECT%20DISTINCT%20%3Fproperty%20WHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20a%20wikibase%3AProperty%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ18610173%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20wdt%3AP31%20wd%3AQ26940804%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%3Fproperty%20wikibase%3AdirectClaim%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20.%0A%20%20%20%20%3FchildNode%20%3FchildNodeclaim%20%3FchildNodeImage%20.%0A%20%20%7D%0A%0A%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3Fnode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FnodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FnodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22fr-FR%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en-US%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22en%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20OPTIONAL%20%7B%20%3FchildNode%20%3Chttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2F01%2Frdf-schema%23label%3E%20%3FchildNodeLabel.%20FILTER%28LANG%28%3FchildNodeLabel%29%20%3D%20%22mul%22%29%20%7D%0A%20%20%20%20%0A%7D Example with Energy democracy]

=== Mapping sources consensus ===
Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight.

== Writing ==
To cite articles we used the [[Template:Cite Q|Cite Q template.]] Each reference is an item in Wikidata and the template retrieve the necessary data to generate the citation references below.


== Future research ==
The analysis of knowledge graph could in theory allow to make logical deduction to generate new data&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;.

Reflect on the future of scholarly communication : https://hal.science/hal-03277615/file/OPERAS_Future_of_Scholarly_Communication_06.2021.pdf

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>ra3nefeh55kv5hs61ts7m0x13sna570</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Pentagram map</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>326182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816444</id>
      <parentid>2816201</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T13:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Regliste</username>
        <id>3029369</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Over rings */ typo</comment>
      <origin>2816444</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58606" sha1="ttz1kzk67f9mk2h6q3icg744xzhipq3" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| last1 = Stiegler
| orcid1 = 0009-0001-5789-6923
| first1 = Jean-Baptiste
| affiliation1 = Université Paris-Saclay
| correspondence1 = jean-baptiste.stiegler@universite-paris-saclay.fr
| journal = WikiJournal of Science
| et_al = true
| w1 = Pentagram map
| from w1 = true
| keywords = Pentagram map, Dynamical system, Projective geometry, Moduli space, Integrable systems
| license = CC-BY-SA 4.0
| submitted = 2025-12-08
| abstract = In [[w:mathematics|mathematics]], the '''pentagram map''' is a [[w:Dynamical system#Discrete dynamical system|discrete dynamical system]] acting on [[w:polygons|polygons]] in the [[w:projective plane|projective plane]]. It defines a new polygon whose vertices are obtained as the intersection points of the shortest [[w:Diagonal|diagonals]] of the initial polygon. This is a [[w:Projective linear group|projectively]] [[w:Equivariant map|equivariant]] procedure, hence it [[w:Quotient space (topology)|descends]] to the [[w:moduli space|moduli space]] of polygons and defines another dynamical system (which is also referred to as the pentagram map). It was first introduced by [[w:Richard Schwartz (mathematician)|Richard Schwartz]] in 1992.{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992}}

The pentagram map on the moduli space is famous for its [[w:Completely integrable|complete integrability]] and its link with [[w:cluster algebra|cluster algebras]].{{sfn|Gekhtman|Izosimov|2025|p=14}}

It admits many generalizations in [[w:Projective space|projective spaces]] and other settings.
}}
== Introduction ==

=== Informal definition ===

==== On polygons ====
[[File:Pentagram pentagon nolabel big.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|The pentagram map applied on a [[w:Convex set|convex]] [[w:pentagon|pentagon]].]]
Initially, the pentagram map was defined for [[w:convex polygon|convex polygon]]s (with at least five sides) on the [[w:euclidean plane|Euclidean plane]]. Given such a polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; sides, one can draw the &quot;shortest [[w:diagonal|diagonal]]s&quot;, meaning the [[w:Line segment|segments]] whose endpoints are a [[w:Vertex (geometry)|vertex]] and one of its second neighbors (as in Figure 1). The intersections of the shortest diagonals are then taken as the vertices of a new &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon &lt;math&gt;T(P)&lt;/math&gt;; this new polygon is the output of the pentagram map.{{Sfn|Berger|2005}}

The same construction can be done on [[w:Concave polygon|non-convex polygons]], but there are several complications. First, some consecutive short diagonals may not intersect, so one must extend the segments to [[w:Line (geometry)|lines]]. Second, the image &lt;math&gt;T(P)&lt;/math&gt; can fail to be a new &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon because some consecutive vertices could coincide. However, this [[w:Generic property|generically]] doesn't happen.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|p=411|2009}} Finally, it is possible that two diagonals are [[w:Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] and don't intersect on the [[w:euclidean plane|Euclidean plane]]. This is resolved by extending the Euclidean plane to the [[w:real projective plane|real projective plane]] by the addition of a [[w:line at infinity|line at infinity]], where the [[w:Vanishing point|intersection point]] lies (see Figure 3). Hence, the pentagram map is defined for generic polygons in the real projective plane.{{Sfn|Berger|2005|p=25}}

More generally, the construction of the pentagram map is well defined whenever the concepts of lines and their intersections make sense. This is encompassed by the notion of a general [[w:projective plane|projective plane]], of which the real projective plane is one example; but the pentagram map can also be considered over other [[w:Field (mathematics)|fields]], for instance the [[w:complex number|complex number]]s, which give the [[w:complex projective plane|complex projective plane]].{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=§3.1.1}}

==== On the moduli space of polygons ====
Since the pentagram map is constructed by drawing lines and marking their intersections, it [[w:Commutative property|commutes]] with any transformation that sends lines to lines. Such maps are called [[w:projective transformations|projective transformations]]. This allows to identify polygons [[w:up to|up to]] [[w:Perspectivity#Projectivity|projective transformations]]. This identification gives a [[w:Quotient space (topology)|quotient space]] (technically called a [[w:moduli space|moduli space]]) of [[w:Equivalence class|classes]] of polygons. 

The pentagram map on polygons induces another dynamical system on the moduli space,{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=§1 Projective geometry}} whose behavior differs quite a lot from the initial one.{{Efn|Compare the paragraph about the [[w:Pentagram map#Collapsing of convex polygons|collapsing of convex polygons]] and the one about [[w:Pentagram map#Complete integrability|complete integrability]].}} The dynamic is trivial for the classes of pentagons and heptagons, but this stops to be the case for polygons with more vertices.{{Efn|See the paragraph about [[w:Pentagram_map#Pentagons_and_hexagons|pentagons and hexagons]].}}

=== Historical elements ===
The pentagram map for general polygons was introduced in {{Harvard citation|Schwartz|1992}}, but the simplest case is the one of [[w:pentagons|pentagons]], hence the name &quot;[[w:pentagram|pentagram]]&quot;.{{Sfn|Marí-Beffa|2014|p=1}} Their study goes back to {{Harvard citation|Clebsch|1871}},{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022a|p=1085}} {{Harvard citation|Kasner|1928}}{{Sfn|Tabachnikov|2019}} and {{Harvard citation|Motzkin|1945}}.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2013|p=1}}

The pentagram map interacts with some classical configuration theorems of [[w:projective geometry|projective geometry]]. It provides results analogous to the ones of [[w:Pascal's theorem|Pascal's theorem]] and [[wikipedia:Brianchon's_theorem|Brianchon's theorem]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010}} Some specific configurations make [[w:Desargues' theorem|Desargues's theorem]] and [[w:Poncelet's porism|Poncelet's porism]] appear.{{Sfn|Berger|2005|loc=§4 and §5}}{{Efn|See the paragraph about [[w:Pentagram map#Poncelet polygons|Poncelet polygons]].}}

==Definitions and first properties==

=== Definition of the map ===
[[File:Pentagram pentagon label big.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|The pentagram map on a convex pentagon, with vertices labeled.]]
[[File:Pentagram on nonconvex pentagon.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|The pentagram map applied on a [[w:Self-intersecting polygon|self-intersecting]] (in particular, non-convex) pentagon. The vertex &lt;math&gt;w_2&lt;/math&gt; is on the [[w:line at infinity|line at infinity]], because it is the [[w:Vanishing point|intersection of two parallel lines]].]]
Let &lt;math&gt;n\geq 5&lt;/math&gt; be an integer. A polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; sides, or &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon, is a tuple of [[w:Vertex (geometry)|vertices]] &lt;math&gt;(v_1,\dots,v_n)&lt;/math&gt; lying in some [[w:projective plane|projective plane]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P ^2&lt;/math&gt;,{{Efn|In the following, the figures represent polygons on the real plane, where the intuition is easier to grasp.}} where the indices are understood [[w:Modular arithmetic|modulo]] &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;. The [[w:Dimension of an algebraic variety|dimension]] of the space of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons is &lt;math&gt;2n&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=definition 1.1}}

Suppose that the vertices are in sufficiently [[w:general position|general position]], meaning that no consecutive triple of points are [[w:Collinearity|collinear]].{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2013|p=1}} Taking the intersection of two consecutive &quot;shortest&quot; [[w:diagonal|diagonal]]s{{Efn|Meaning the line between a vertex &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; and a &quot;second neighbour&quot; &lt;math&gt;v_{k\pm 2}&lt;/math&gt;.}} defines a new point&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; w_k := \overline{v_{k-1} v_{k+1}} \cap \overline{v_{k} v_{k+2}}. &lt;/math&gt;This procedure defines a new &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon &lt;math&gt;T(P)=(w_1,\dots,w_n)&lt;/math&gt;, as in Figure 2.{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|p=71}}

The labeling of the indices of &lt;math&gt;T(P)&lt;/math&gt; is not [[w:canonical|canonical]]. In most papers, a choice is made at the beginning of the paper and the formulas are tuned accordingly.{{Sfn|Izosimov|2016|loc=remark 1.5}}

The pentagram map on polygons is a [[w:birational map|birational map]] &lt;math&gt;T:(\mathbb P^2)^n&lt;/math&gt;{{nowrap|{{font|size=145%|⇢}}}}&lt;math&gt;(\mathbb P^2)^n&lt;/math&gt;. Indeed, each [[w:Homogeneous coordinates|coordinate]] of &lt;math&gt;w_k&lt;/math&gt; is given as a [[w:rational function|rational function]] of the coordinates of &lt;math&gt;v_{k-1},\dots,v_{k+2}&lt;/math&gt;, since it is defined as the intersection of lines passing by them. Moreover, the [[w:inverse map|inverse map]] is given by taking the intersections &lt;math&gt;\overline{w_{k-2} w_{k-1}} \cap \overline{w_{k} w_{k+1}} &lt;/math&gt;, which is rational for the same reason.{{Sfnp|Weinreich|2022|loc=definition 1.2}}

=== Moduli space ===
The pentagram map is defined by taking [[w:Line (geometry)|lines]] and intersections of them. The biggest [[w:Group (mathematics)|group]] which maps lines to lines is the one of [[w:projective transformations|projective transformations]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P \mathrm{GL}_{3}&lt;/math&gt;. Such a transformation &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; [[w:Group action|acts]] on a polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; by sending it to &lt;math&gt;M \cdot P:=(Mv_1,\dots,Mv_n)&lt;/math&gt;. The pentagram map [[w:Commutative property|commutes]] with this action, and thereby induces another [[w:dynamical system|dynamical system]] on the [[w:moduli space|moduli space]] of projective [[w:equivalence classes|equivalence classes]] of polygons. Its [[w:Dimension of an algebraic variety|dimension]] is &lt;math&gt;2n-8&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=§1 Projective geometry}}

===Twisted polygons===
[[File:Twisted heptagon.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|An example of twisted [[w:heptagon|heptagon]] on the real plane.]]
The pentagram map naturally generalizes on the larger space of twisted polygons (see example in Figure 4). For any integer &lt;math&gt;n\geq5&lt;/math&gt;, a twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is the data of:

* a [[w:Sequence#Indexing|bi-infinite sequence]] of points &lt;math&gt;(v_k)_{k\in\mathbb Z}&lt;/math&gt; in the projective plane (called the vertices),
* a [[w:projective transformation|projective transformation]] &lt;math&gt;M \in \mathbb P \mathrm{GL}_3&lt;/math&gt; (called the [[w:monodromy|monodromy]]),

such that for any &lt;math&gt;k \in \mathbb Z&lt;/math&gt;, the property &lt;math&gt;v_{k+n}=Mv_k&lt;/math&gt; is satisfied. The dimension of the space of twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons is &lt;math&gt;2n+8&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2008}}

When &lt;math&gt;M=\mathrm{Id}&lt;/math&gt;, this gives back the initial definition of polygons (which are said to be closed). The space of closed &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons is of [[w:codimension|codimension]] &lt;math&gt;8&lt;/math&gt; in the space of twisted ones.{{Sfn|Soloviev|2013|p=2816}}

The action of projective transformations over the space of closed polygons generalizes to the space of twisted ones (the monodromy is changed by [[w:Matrix similarity|conjugation]]). This provides again a moduli space, of dimension &lt;math&gt;2n&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=definition 1.3}}

== Collapsing of convex polygons ==

=== Exponential shrinking ===
[[File:Pentagram map convex heptagon iterate.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|The pentagram map iterated on a convex [[w:heptagon|heptagon]], exhibiting the convergence.]]
Let &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; be a closed [[w:Convex polygon#Strictly convex polygon|strictly convex polygon]] lying on the real plane. One of the first results proved by Richard Schwartz it that its iterates under the pentagram map shrink [[w:Exponential growth|exponentially fast]] to a point, as illustrated in Figure 5. This follows from two facts.
# The image of a strictly convex polygon is contained in its [[w:Interior (topology)|interior]], and is also strictly convex.{{Sfn|Glick|2020|p=2818}}
# There exists a constant &lt;math&gt;0&lt; \eta_P&lt;1&lt;/math&gt;, depending on &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;, such that for any &lt;math&gt;N \in \mathbb N&lt;/math&gt;, the diameters of the iterates verify the inequality &lt;math display=&quot;inline&quot;&gt;\operatorname{diam}(T^N(P))\leq\eta_P^N \operatorname{diam}(P). &lt;/math&gt;{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=theorem 3.1}}

Hence, by [[w:Cantor's intersection theorem#Variant in complete metric spaces|Cantor's intersection theorem]], the sequence of polygons collapses toward a point.{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=§3 Convex polygons}}

The behavior on the moduli space is very different, since the dynamics is [[w:Recurrent point|recurrent]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2001|loc=theorem 1.1}} It is even a [[w:quasiperiodic motion|quasiperiodic motion]],{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2009}} as discussed in [[w:Pentagram map#Complete integrability|the section about integrability]].

=== Coordinates of the limit point ===
The limit point coordinates are found in {{Harvard citation|Glick|2020}}. They satisfy some [[w:Degree of a polynomial|degree]] 3 [[w:polynomial equation|polynomial equations]], whose coefficients are [[w:rational function|rational function]]s in the coordinates of the vertices of the starting polygon. The proof relies on the fact that the limit point must be an [[w:eigenline|eigenline]] of a certain [[w:linear operator|linear operator]] of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb R^3&lt;/math&gt;.{{sfn|Glick|2020}}

This operator was reinterpreted in {{Harvard citation|Aboud|Izosimov|2022}} as the infinitesimal monodromy of the polygon. The [[w:Pentagram map#The scaling symmetry|scaling symmetry]] is used to [[w:Deformation (mathematics)|deform]] a closed polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; into a family of twisted ones '''&lt;math&gt;(P_z)_{z\in \mathbb C^*}&lt;/math&gt;''' with monodromy &lt;math&gt;M_z&lt;/math&gt;. The infinitesimal monodromy is defined to be:{{sfn|Aboud|Izosimov|2022}}
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;\left.\frac{dM_z}{dz}\right|_{z=1}.&lt;/math&gt;

=== Generalization ===
The collapsing of polygons may also happen in some [[w:Pentagram map#Generalizations|generalization of the pentagram map]], when considering some specific configurations of polygons in the real plane. The coordinates of the collapse point are given by a formula analogous to the one for the original pentagram map.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2026}}

== Periodic orbits on the moduli space ==
For some configurations of closed polygons, the iterate of the pentagram map will send &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; to a projectively equivalent polygon (up to some shift of the indices). This means that, on the moduli space, the orbit of the class of &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is [[w:Periodic orbit|periodic]].

===Pentagons and hexagons===
[[File:penta hexagon.svg|300px|thumb|The outward hexagon is projectively equivalent to the inward one, with respect to their labeling.]]The following two facts are proved by checking [[w:cross-ratio|cross-ratio]] equalities, so they are true for polygons in any [[w:projective plane|projective plane]] (not just the [[w:Real projective plane|real one]]).{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=§2 Pentagons and hexagons}}

The pentagram map &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; is the identity on the moduli space of [[w:pentagon|pentagon]]s.{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=theorem 2.1}}{{Sfn|Clebsch|1871}}{{Sfn|Motzkin|1945}} The second iterate &lt;math&gt;T^2&lt;/math&gt; is the identity on the space of labeled [[w:hexagon|hexagon]]s, up to a shift of labeling (see Figure 6).{{Sfn|Schwartz|1992|loc=theorem 2.3}} This phenomenon doesn't generalize to generic polygons with at least seven sides, for which the motion is [[w:Quasiperiodic motion|quasi-periodic]].{{Sfn|Tupan|2022}}

==== Generalization ====
The result about pentagons and hexagons generalizes to some [[w:Pentagram map#Generalizations|higher pentagram maps]] in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P ^k&lt;/math&gt;, for polygons with &lt;math&gt;k+3&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;2k+2&lt;/math&gt; sides. The proof uses a generalization of the [[w:Gale transform|Gale transform]].{{Sfn|Dirdak|2024}}

=== Poncelet polygons ===
A polygon is said to be Poncelet{{Efn|The name comes from [[w:Jean-Victor Poncelet|Jean-Victor Poncelet]] and [[w:Poncelet porism|his porism]].{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022a|p=1085}}}} if it is [[w:Inscribed figure|inscribed]] in a [[w:Conic section|conic]] and circumscribed about another one.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2015|loc=|p=433}}{{Efn|In particular, pentagons are Poncelet since [[w:five points determine a conic|five points determine a conic]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2015|loc=|p=433}}}} For a convex Poncelet &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; lying on the [[w:real projective plane|real projective plane]], the polygon &lt;math&gt;T^2(P)&lt;/math&gt; is projectively equivalent to &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2015|loc=theorem 1.1}} In fact, when &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is odd, the converse is also true.{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022a|loc=corollary 1.1}}

However, this converse statement is no longer true when the polygons are considered over the [[w:complex projective plane|complex projective plane]].{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022a|loc=remark 1.3}}

==Coordinates for the moduli space==
The moduli space can be described by different [[w:Coordinate_system|coordinate systems]]. The following ones are practical to explicit the dynamic, as presented in the next section.

=== Corner coordinates ===
[[File:Corner coordinates big.svg|thumb|300x300px|The geometric construction of the points defining the corner invariants.]]
Define the [[w:cross-ratio|cross-ratio]] of four [[w:Collinearity|collinear]] points to be

: &lt;math&gt; [a,b,c,d]=\frac{(a-b)(c-d)}{(a-c)(b-d)}. &lt;/math&gt;

The corner invariants are a system of coordinates on the space of twisted polygons, constructed by taking intersections as in Figure 7.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2001|loc=figure 2}} The left and right invariants are respectively defined{{Efn|The ordering of the vertices in the cross-ratios can differ from a paper to another one, which slightly changes the formulas in the following sections.}} as the following cross-ratios:

: &lt;math&gt;x_k:=[v_{k-2},v_{k-1},\overline{v_{k-2}v_{k-1}}\cap\overline{v_{k}v_{k+1}},\overline{v_{k-2}v_{k-1}}\cap\overline{v_{k+1}v_{k+2}}],&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;y_k:=[\overline{v_{k+1}v_{k+2}}\cap\overline{v_{k-2}v_{k-1}}, \overline{v_{k+1}v_{k+2}}\cap\overline{v_{k-1}v_{k}},v_{k+1},v_{k+2}].&lt;/math&gt;

Since the cross-ratio is [[w:Cross-ratio#Projective geometry|projective invariant]], the sequences &lt;math&gt;(x_k)_{k \in \mathbb Z}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(y_k)_{k \in \mathbb Z}&lt;/math&gt; associated to a twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon are &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; periodic.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|p=415}}

The corner invariants are elements of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{P}^1\smallsetminus\{0,1,\infty\}&lt;/math&gt;, and they realize an [[w:Isomorphism_of_varieties|isomorphism of variety]] between the moduli space of twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons and &lt;math&gt;(\mathbb{P}^1\smallsetminus\{0,1,\infty\})^{2n}&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=theorem 3.6}}

===ab-coordinates===

There is a second set of coordinates for the moduli space of twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons defined over a [[w:Field (mathematics)|field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; satisfying &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{SL}_3(F)\cong \mathbb P\mathrm{GL}_3(F)&lt;/math&gt;,{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=remark 3.8}} and such that &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is not divisible by &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=section 4.1}}

The vertices &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; in the [[w:projective plane|projective plane]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P^2(F)&lt;/math&gt; can be [[w:Lift (mathematics)|lifted]] to [[w:Vector space|vectors]] &lt;math&gt;V_k&lt;/math&gt; in the [[w:affine space|affine space]] &lt;math&gt;F^3&lt;/math&gt; so that each consecutive triple of vectors spans a [[w:parallelepiped|parallelepiped]] having [[w:determinant|determinant]] equal to &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;. This leads to the relation{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=equation 4.1}}

: &lt;math&gt;V_{k+3} = a_k V_{k+2} + b_k V_{k+1} + V_k.&lt;/math&gt;

This bring out an analogy between twisted polygons and solutions of third order linear [[w:ordinary differential equations|ordinary differential equations]], normalized to have unit [[w:Wronskian|Wronskian]].{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=remark 6.6}}

They are linked to the corner coordinates by:{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=lemma 4.5}}
: &lt;math&gt;x_k=\frac{a_{k-2}}{b_{k-2}b_{k-1}},&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;y_k=-\frac{b_{k-1}}{a_{k-2}a_{k-1}}.&lt;/math&gt;

==Formulas on the moduli space==

===As a birational map ===
The pentagram map is a [[w:birational map|birational map]] on the moduli space, because it can be decomposed as the [[w:Function composition|composition]] of two [[w:Birational geometry|birational]] [[w:Involution (mathematics)|involutions]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2008|loc=§1.2 The Pentagram Map}} The corner invariants change in the following way:{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|loc=lemma 2.4|Tabachnikov|2010}}

: &lt;math&gt;x_k'=x_k\frac{1-x_{k-1} y_{k-1}}{1-x_{k+1}y_{k+1}},&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;y_k'=y_{k+1}\frac{1-x_{k+2} y_{k+2}}{1-x_k y_k}.&lt;/math&gt;

=== The scaling symmetry ===
The [[w:multiplicative group|multiplicative group]] &lt;math&gt;F\smallsetminus\{0\}&lt;/math&gt; [[w:One-parameter group|acts]] on the moduli space in the following way:

: &lt;math&gt;R_s\cdot(x_1,\dots,x_n,y_1,\dots,y_n)=(sx_1,\dots,sx_n,s^{-1}y_1,\dots,s^{-1}y_n),&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is called the scaling action and &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; is the scaling parameter. This action commutes with the pentagram map on the moduli space (as presented in the previous formulas). This property is called the scaling symmetry, and is instrumental in proving the [[w:Pentagram map#Complete integrability|complete integrability]] of the dynamics.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=corollary 2.5}}

==Invariant structures==

===Monodromy invariants===

The monodromy invariants, introduced in {{Harvard citation|Schwartz|2008}}, are a collection of [[w:Function (mathematics)|functions]] on the [[w:moduli space|moduli space]] that are invariant under the pentagram map.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2008|loc=theorem 1.2}} The simplest example of them are 
:&lt;math&gt; O_n= x_1x_2\cdots x_{n}, \quad E_n = y_1y_2\cdots y_n. &lt;/math&gt;
The other monodromy invariants can be retrieved through different points of view: through the [[w:Pentagram map#The scaling symmetry|scaling symmetry]], as [[w:Combinatorics|combinatorial]] objects, or as some [[w:determinant|determinant]]s.{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2011|loc=§2 The Monodromy Invariants}} The one involving scaling symmetry is presented here.

Let &lt;math&gt;M\in \mathrm{GL}_3&lt;/math&gt; be a [[w:Lift (mathematics)|lift]] of the monodromy of a twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gon. The quantities

: &lt;math&gt;\Omega_1=\frac{\operatorname{trace}^3(M)}{\det(M)}, \quad \Omega_2=\frac{\operatorname{trace}^3(M^{-1})}{\det(M^{-1})},&lt;/math&gt;

are independent of the choice of lift and are invariant under [[w:Matrix similarity|conjugation]], so they are well defined for the projective class of the polygon. They are invariant under the pentagram map, since the monodromy matrix doesn't change.{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2011|loc=|p=5}} Now, the quantities

: &lt;math&gt;\tilde{\Omega}_1=O_n^2E_n\Omega_1, \quad \tilde{\Omega}_2=O_nE_n^2\Omega_2,&lt;/math&gt;

have the same properties, but turn out to be polynomials in the corner invariants.{{Efn|Some papers consider the cube roots of this functions, but it doesn't change the following definitions of the monodromy invariants.}} They can be written as{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2011|loc=|p=5}}

: &lt;math&gt;
\tilde{\Omega}_1=\biggl(\sum_{k=0}^{\lfloor n/2\rfloor}O_k\biggr)^3, \quad
\tilde{\Omega}_2=\biggl(\sum_{k=0}^{\lfloor n/2\rfloor}E_k\biggr)^3,
&lt;/math&gt;

where each &lt;math&gt;O_k&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;E_k&lt;/math&gt; are [[w:homogeneous polynomial|homogeneous polynomial]]s respectively of weight &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-k&lt;/math&gt;,{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2013|p=11}} meaning they change under the [[w:Pentagram map#The scaling symmetry|rescaling action]] on variables by{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2011|p=5}}

: &lt;math&gt; R_s(O_k)= s^k O_k, \quad R_s(E_k)= s^{-k} E_k. &lt;/math&gt;

The quantities &lt;math&gt;O_1,\dots,O_{\lfloor n/2 \rfloor},O_n, E_1,\dots,E_{\lfloor n/2 \rfloor},E_n,&lt;/math&gt; are unchanged by the dynamics, and are called the monodromy invariants. Moreover, they are [[w:algebraically independent|algebraically independent]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2008|loc=theorem 1.2}}

==== Polygons on conics ====
Whenever &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is [[w:Inscribed figure|inscribed]] on a [[w:conic section|conic section]], one has &lt;math&gt;O_k(P)=E_k(P)&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2011|loc=theorem 1.1}} Moreover, if &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is circumscribed about another conic,{{Efn|See the paragraph about [[w:Pentagram map#Poncelet polygons|Poncelet polygons]].}} then its monodromy invariants are characterized by the pair of conics.{{Sfn|Schwartz|2015|loc=theorem 1.2}} For such odd-gons, the translation on the [[w:Jacobian variety|Jacobian variety]]{{Efn|See the paragraph about [[w:Pentagram map#Algebro-geometric integrability|algebraic integrability]].}} is restricted to the [[w:Prym variety|Prym variety]] (which is a half-dimensional torus in the Jacobian).{{Sfn|Izosimov|2016|loc=theorem 1.3}}

===Poisson bracket===

An invariant [[w:Poisson bracket|Poisson bracket]] on the space of twisted polygons was found in {{Harvard citation|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010}}. The monodromy invariants [[w:Poisson bracket#Constants of motion|commute]] with respect to it:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; \{O_i,O_j\}=\{O_i,E_j\}=\{E_i,E_j\}=0 &lt;/math&gt;for all &lt;math&gt;i,j&lt;/math&gt;.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=theorem 1}}

The Poisson bracket is defined in terms of the corner coordinates by:
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; \begin{align}
 \{x_i,x_{i\pm1}\} &amp;= \mp x_i x_{i+1}, \\
 \{y_i,y_{i\pm 1}\} &amp;= \mp y_i y_{i+1}, \\
 \{x_i,x_j\} &amp;= \{y_i,y_j\} = \{x_i,y_j\} = 0
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;for all other &lt;math&gt; i,j.&lt;/math&gt;{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=equation 2.16}}

=== The spectral curve ===

Let &lt;math&gt;\zeta&lt;/math&gt; be an element of the [[w:multiplicative group|multiplicative group]] and &lt;math&gt;P_\zeta&lt;/math&gt; be the polygon obtained by applying the [[w:Pentagram map#The scaling symmetry|rescaling action]] &lt;math&gt;R_\zeta&lt;/math&gt; on &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;.  A [[w:Lax matrix|Lax matrix]] &lt;math&gt;\hat{T}(\zeta) \in \mathrm{GL}_3&lt;/math&gt; is a lift of the monodromy of &lt;math&gt;P_\zeta&lt;/math&gt; satisfying a [[w:Lax pair#Zero-curvature equation|zero-curvature equation]].{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=§5 The Lax representation}} Then, the spectral function is the [[w:Bivariate polynomial|bivariate]] [[w:characteristic polynomial|characteristic polynomial]]
&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; Q(\lambda,\zeta) := \det(\lambda\operatorname{Id}-\hat{T}(\zeta)),&lt;/math&gt;or some renormalization of it. The [[w:spectral curve|spectral curve]] is the [[w:Projective variety#projective completion|projective completion]] of the [[w:Algebraic curve|affine curve]] defined by the equation &lt;math&gt;Q(\lambda,\zeta)=0&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=§6. The geometry of the spectral curve}} It is invariant under the pentagram map, and the monodromy invariants appear as the [[w:coefficient|coefficient]]s of &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=theorem 6.4}} Its [[w:geometric genus|geometric genus]] is &lt;math&gt;n-1&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is odd, and &lt;math&gt;n-2&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is even.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|p=|loc=theorem 6.4}}

It was first introduced in {{Harv|Soloviev|2013|ps=|p=}} for his proof of [[w:Pentagram map#Algebro-geometric integrability|algebro-geometric integrability]].{{sfn|Soloviev|2013}}

==Complete integrability==
The pentagram map on the moduli space has been proved to be a [[w:completely integrable|completely integrable]] [[w:discrete dynamical system|discrete dynamical system]], both in the [[w:Integrable system#Hamiltonian systems and Liouville integrability|Arnold-Liouville]]{{Efn|Over the [[w:real number|real number]]s.}} and the [[w:Integrable system#Complete integrability over the complex numbers|algebro-geometric]]{{Efn|Over [[w:algebraically closed field|algebraically closed field]]s of [[w:Characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] different from 2.}} senses. In any case, this means that the moduli space is [[w:almost everywhere|almost everywhere]] [[w:Foliation|foliated]] by [[w:Torus#Flat torus|flat tori]] (or in the algebraic setting, [[w:Abelian variety|Abelian varieties]]), where the motion is a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]]. This [[w:Generic property|generically]] induces a [[w:quasiperiodic motion|quasiperiodic motion]] on the corresponding torus.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2009}}

===Arnold–Liouville integrability===

The proof of the integrability of the pentagram map on a real twisted polygon was achieved in {{Harvard citation|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010}}. This is done by noticing that the monodromy invariants &lt;math&gt;O_n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;E_n&lt;/math&gt; are [[w:Casimir invariant|Casimir invariant]]s for the bracket, meaning (in this context) that&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; \{O_n,f\}=\{E_n,f\} = 0 &lt;/math&gt;for all functions &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=theorem 1}} When &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is even, this is also true for the monodromy invariants &lt;math&gt;O_{\lfloor n/2 \rfloor }&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;E_{\lfloor n/2 \rfloor }&lt;/math&gt;.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=theorem 1}}

This allows to consider the Casimir [[w:level set|level set]], where each Casimir has a specified value. Because of [[w:Sard's theorem|Sard's theorem]], any generic level set is a [[w:smooth manifold|smooth manifold]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2017|p=44}} They form a [[w:foliation|foliation]] in [[w:Poisson manifold#Symplectic leaves|symplectic leaves]], on which the Poisson bracket gives rise to a [[w:symplectic form|symplectic form]].{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=corollary 2.13}}

Each of these symplectic leaves has an iso-monodromy [[w:foliation|foliation]], namely, a decomposition into the common level sets of the remaining monodromy functions. By using again [[w:Sard's theorem|Sard's theorem]], they are generically [[w:Symplectic manifold#Lagrangian submanifolds|Lagrangian manifolds]].{{Sfn|Schwartz|2017|p=45}} Moreover, they are compact.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=§3.3. Compactness of the level sets}} Since the monodromy invariants Poisson-commute and there are enough of them, the discrete [[w:Liouville–Arnold theorem|Liouville–Arnold theorem]] can be applied to prove that the level sets are [[w:Torus#Flat torus|flat tori]] over which the dynamics is a translation.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|p=412}}
===Algebro-geometric integrability===

In {{Harvard citation|Soloviev|2013}}, it was shown that the pentagram map admits a [[w:Lax representation|Lax representation]] with a spectral parameter, which allows to prove its algebro-geometric integrability. This means that the space of polygons (either twisted or closed) is parametrized by its spectral data, consisting of [[w:Pentagram map#The spectral curve|its spectral curve]], with marked points and a [[w:Divisor (algebraic geometry)|divisor]] given by a [[w:Floquet theory|Floquet]]–[[w:Bloch's theorem|Bloch]] equation. This gives an embedding to the [[w:Jacobian variety|Jacobian variety]] through the [[w:Abel–Jacobi map|Abel–Jacobi map]], where the motion is expressed in terms of translation.{{sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=theorems A, B and C}} The previously defined Poisson bracket is also retrieved.{{sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=theorem D}} 

This integrability was generalized in {{Harvard citation|Weinreich|2022}} from the field of [[w:complex number|complex number]]s to any [[w:algebraically closed field|algebraically closed field]] of [[w:Characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] different from 2. The translation on a torus is replaced by a translation on an [[w:Abelian variety|Abelian variety]] (in fact, a Jacobian variety again).{{sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=theorem 1.4}}

=== Dimension of the invariant manifold ===

For twisted &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons, the [[w:dimension|dimension]] of the invariant tori (or Jacobian varieties) is{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|p=421}}

: &lt;math&gt;\begin{cases} 
n-1 &amp; \text{when }n \text{ is odd,}\\
n-2 &amp; \text{when }n \text{ is even.}
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

Moreover, when &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is even, there are two isomorphic Jacobians on which the iterates of the pentagram map alternate. But on each of them, the second iterate is a translation.{{Sfn|Weinreich|2022|loc=theorem 1.4}}

=== For closed polygons ===
There is no Poisson structure on the space of closed polygons.{{Sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=corollary 4.1}} Nevertheless, the one from twisted polygons can be used to prove integrability.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2013|p=2153}}

Algebro-geometric integrability holds for closed polygons in a same manner as for the twisted ones.{{Sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=theorem C}} However, Arnold-Liouville integrability is proved for real closed polygons only when they are convex. This is done by restricting the [[w:Hamiltonian vector field|Hamiltonian vector field]]s of monodromy functions to smaller dimensional tori, and showing that enough of them are still independent.{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2013|loc=corollary 1.1}}

In both situation, the dimension of the invariant manifolds decreases by &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; for closed &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-gons (compared to the twisted case), and is equal to{{Sfn|Soloviev|2013|loc=theorem C}}{{sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2013|loc=theorem 1}}
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases} 
n-4 &amp; \text{when }n \text{ is odd,}\\
n-5 &amp; \text{when }n \text{ is even.}
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

==Connections to other topics==

===The Boussinesq equation===

The continuous limit of a convex polygon is a parametrized convex curve in the plane. When the time parameter is suitably chosen, the [[w:Discretization|continuous limit]] of the pentagram map is the classical [[w:Boussinesq approximation (water waves)|Boussinesq equation]]. This equation is a classical example of an [[w:integrable|integrable]] [[w:partial differential equation|partial differential equation]].{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=theorem 5}}

Here is a description of the geometric action of the Boussinesq equation. Given a [[w:locally convex|locally convex]] curve &lt;math&gt; C:\mathbb R\to \mathbb R^2 &lt;/math&gt; and real numbers &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt;, consider the [[w:chord (geometry)|chord]] connecting &lt;math&gt; C(x-t) &lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt; C(x+t) &lt;/math&gt;. The [[w:Envelope (mathematics)|envelope]] of all these chords is a new curve &lt;math&gt; C_t(x) &lt;/math&gt;. When &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is extremely small, the curve &lt;math&gt; C_t(x) &lt;/math&gt; is a good model for the time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; evolution of the original curve &lt;math&gt; C_0(x) &lt;/math&gt; under the Boussinesq equation. This construction is also similar to the pentagram map. Moreover, the pentagram invariant bracket is a discretization of a well known invariant Poisson bracket associated to the Boussinesq equation.{{Sfn|Ovsienko|Schwartz|Tabachnikov|2010|loc=§6.4 Discretization}}

===Cluster algebras===

The pentagram map{{Sfn|Glick|2011}} and some of its generalizations{{Sfn|Gekhtman|Shapiro|Tabachnikov|Vainshtein|2012}}{{Sfn|Glick|Pylyavskyy|2016}} are identified as special cases of discrete dynamical systems powered by [[w:cluster algebra|cluster algebra]]. This provides a link with the [[w:Poisson–Lie group|Poisson–Lie group]]s, [[w:dimer model|dimer model]]s and other so-called cluster-integrable systems.{{Sfn|Fock|Marshakov|2016}} These methods allow to retrieve the Poisson-bracket and Hamiltonians used to prove complete integrability{{Sfn|Affolter|George|Ramassamy|2025|loc=§5 The pentagram map}} and provide [[w:Lax representation|Lax representation]]s.{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022b}}

=== Singularity theory ===
The pentagram map exhibit a property called singularity confinement, which is typical from [[w:integrable system|integrable system]]s.{{Sfn|Grammaticos|Ramani|Papageorgiou|1991}} It states that if a polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is [[w:Singular point of an algebraic variety|singular]] for the pentagram map &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;, then there exists an integer &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; not singular for the iterate map &lt;math&gt;T^m&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Glick|2012}}

Moreover, the pentagram map (along with some of its generalizations and other discrete dynamical systems) exhibit the Devron property.{{Efn|The name comes from an episode of [[w:Star Trek|Star Trek]].{{Sfn|Glick|2015|loc=§1 Introduction}}}} This means that if a polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is singular for some iterate of the pentagram map &lt;math&gt;T^m&lt;/math&gt;, then it will also be singular for some iterate of the inverse map &lt;math&gt;T^{-m'}&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Glick|2015}}

== Generalizations ==
The definition of twisted polygons still makes sense in any [[w:projective space|projective space]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P^d&lt;/math&gt;, under the action of the [[w:Projective linear group|projective group]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P \mathrm{GL}_{d+1}&lt;/math&gt;. The pentagram map can be generalized in many ways, and some of them are presented here. Not all of them are integrable.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015|}} Some are [[w:discretization|discretization]]s of [[w:PDEs|PDEs]] from the [[w:KdV hierarchy|KdV hierarchy]], seen as higher dimensional version of [[w:Boussinesq approximation (water waves)|Boussinesq]] or [[w:Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation|KP]] equations.{{Sfn|Marí-Beffa|2012}}{{Sfn|Wang|2023}} The description of all generalized pentagram maps in terms of [[w:cluster algebra|cluster algebra]]s is still an open question.{{Sfn|Gekhtman|Izosimov|2025|p=14}}

=== Polygons in general positions ===
Let &lt;math&gt;d \geq 2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; be a twisted polygon of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P^d&lt;/math&gt; in [[w:general position|general position]].

==== Short diagonal pentagram maps ====
The &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt;-th ''short diagonal hyperplane'' &lt;math&gt;H_k^{sh}&lt;/math&gt; is uniquely defined by passing through the vertices &lt;math&gt;v_k,v_{k+2},\dots,v_{k+2d-2}&lt;/math&gt;. [[w:Generic property#In algebraic geometry|Generically]], the intersection of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; consecutive hyperplanes uniquely defines a new point

: &lt;math&gt;T_{sh}v_k:=H_k^{sh}\cap H_{k+1}^{sh}\cap \dots \cap H_{k+d-1}^{sh}.&lt;/math&gt;

Doing this for every vertex defines a new twisted polygon. This map, denoted by &lt;math&gt;T_{sh}&lt;/math&gt;, is again projectively equivariant.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2013}}

==== Generalized pentagram maps ====
The previous procedure can be generalized. Let &lt;math&gt;I=(i_1,\dots,i_{d-1}),~J=(j_1,\dots,j_{d-1})&lt;/math&gt; be two sets of integers, respectively called the jump tuple and the intersection tuple. Define the &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt;-th hyperplane &lt;math&gt;H_k^I&lt;/math&gt; to be passing through the vertices &lt;math&gt;v_k,v_{k+i_1},\dots,v_{k+i_1+\dots+i_{d-1}}&lt;/math&gt;. A new point is given by the intersection

: &lt;math&gt;T_{I,J}v_k:=H_k^I \cap H_{k+j_1}^I \cap \dots \cap H_{k+j_1+\dots +j_{d-1}}^I.&lt;/math&gt;

The map &lt;math&gt;T_{I,J}&lt;/math&gt; is called a generalized pentagram map.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015a}} The original pentagram map is recovered by considering&lt;math&gt;d=2,~I=(2),~J=(1)&lt;/math&gt;.

Integrability can be numerically tested by picking a random polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; with [[wikipedia:Rational_point|rational coordinates]] and studying the growth rate of the [[wikipedia:Height_function|height]] of its iterates. This is called the [[wikipedia:Integrable_system#Diophantine_integrability|diophantine integrability]] test, and some generalized pentagram maps don't seem to pass it.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015a|loc=§5 and §6}} However, it is conjectured that the maps &lt;math&gt;T_{I,I}&lt;/math&gt; are integrable for any &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Bolsinov|Matveev|Miranda|Tabachnikov|2018|loc=conjecture 4.13 (B. Khesin, F. Soloviev)}}

Some of these maps are [[w:discretization|discretization]]s of higher dimensional counterpart of the [[w:Boussinesq approximation (water waves)|Boussinesq equation]] in the [[w:KdV hierarchy|KdV hierarchy]].{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015b|loc=theorem 4.1}}{{Sfn|Izosimov|2022b|loc=theorem 4.1}}

==== Dented pentagram maps ====
Fix an integer &lt;math&gt;m\in \{1,\dots ,d-1\}&lt;/math&gt;. Consider the jump tuple &lt;math&gt;I_m:=(1,\dots,1,2,1,\dots,1)&lt;/math&gt;, where the &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; is at the &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;-th place, and the intersection tuple &lt;math&gt;J:=(1,\dots,1)&lt;/math&gt;. The dented pentagram map is &lt;math&gt;T_m :=T_{I_m,J}&lt;/math&gt;. They are proved to be integrable.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015b|loc=theorem 2.14}}

For an integer &lt;math&gt;p \geq 2&lt;/math&gt;, the deep dented pentagram map (of depth &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;) &lt;math&gt;T_m^p&lt;/math&gt; is the same map as before, but the number &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; in the definition of &lt;math&gt;I_m&lt;/math&gt; is replaced by &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;. This kind of pentagram maps are again integrable.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015b|loc=theorem 6.2}}

=== Corrugated polygons ===
A twisted polygon &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; lying in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P^d&lt;/math&gt; is said to be corrugated if for any &lt;math&gt;k\in \mathbb Z&lt;/math&gt;, the vertices &lt;math&gt;v_k,v_{k+1},v_{k+d},v_{k+d+1}&lt;/math&gt; span a projective two-dimensional plane. Such polygons are not in [[w:general position|general position]]. A new point is defined by

: &lt;math&gt;T_\text{cor}v_k:=\overline{v_k v_{k+d}}\cap \overline{v_{k+1} v_{k+d+1}}.&lt;/math&gt;

The map &lt;math&gt;T_\text{cor}&lt;/math&gt; yields a new corrugated polygon. They are [[w:Integrable system#Hamiltonian systems and Liouville integrability|completely Liouville-integrable]].{{Sfn|Gekhtman|Shapiro|Tabachnikov|Vainshtein|2012|loc=theorem 4.4}}

In fact, they can be retrieved as some dented pentagram map applied on corrugated polygons.{{Sfn|Khesin|Soloviev|2015b|loc=theorem 5.3}}

=== Grassmannian polygons ===
Let &lt;math&gt;d \geq 3, m \geq 1&lt;/math&gt; be integers. The pentagram map can also be generalized to the [[w:Grassmannian|Grassmannian]] space &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Gr}(m,md)&lt;/math&gt;, which consists of &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;-[[w:Dimension (vector space)|dimensional]] [[w:linear subspace|linear subspace]]s of an &lt;math&gt;md&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional [[w:vector space|vector space]]. When &lt;math&gt;m=1&lt;/math&gt;, the linear subspaces are [[w:Vector space#vector line|lines]], which retrieves the definition of [[w:projective space|projective space]]s &lt;math&gt;\mathbb P^d&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Felipe|Marí-Beffa|2019|loc=§2 definitions and notations}}

A point &lt;math&gt;v\in\operatorname{Gr}(m,md)&lt;/math&gt; is represented by an &lt;math&gt;md \times m&lt;/math&gt; matrix &lt;math&gt;X_v&lt;/math&gt; such that its columns form a [[w:Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt;. Consider the [[w:Group action|action]] of the [[w:general linear group|general linear group]] &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{GL}_{md}&lt;/math&gt; by multiplication on the left of &lt;math&gt;X_v&lt;/math&gt;. This defines an action on the Grassmannian, even though it is not [[w:Faithful action|faithful]].{{Efn|Because there can be many lifts for &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt;, and because some matrices act trivially.}} Hence, the polygons of &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Gr}(m,md)&lt;/math&gt; and their moduli spaces are defined as before, after the change of underlying group.{{Sfn|Felipe|Marí-Beffa|2019|loc=§2 definitions and notations}}

Depending on the parity of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;, one can define linear subspaces spanned by some &lt;math&gt;X_{v_k}&lt;/math&gt;'s such that taking their intersection generically defines a new point &lt;math&gt;v\in\mathrm{Gr}(m,md)&lt;/math&gt;.{{Sfn|Felipe|Marí-Beffa|2019|loc=sections 4 and 5}} This generalization of the pentagram map is integrable in a [[w:noncommutative|noncommutative]] sense.{{Sfn|Ovenhouse|2020}}

=== Over rings ===
The pentagram map admits a generalization by considering [[w:Projective space#Generalizations|projective planes]] over [[w:stably finite ring|stably finite ring]]s, instead of [[w:Field (mathematics)|field]]s. In particular, this retrieves the pentagram map over Grassmannians. Again, it admits a [[w:Lax representation|Lax representation]].{{Sfn|Hand|Izosimov|2025}}

== References ==
{{reflist|25em}}

===Notes===
{{notelist}}

==Works cited==
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  <page>
    <title>User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell</title>
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      <comment>/* The 600-cell */</comment>
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      <text bytes="81541" sha1="9gm0bbf8vbutetmypodzp3jewqprzp2" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution of this ''great square right rotation of the tesseract'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant great square planes, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° of this ''great square right rotation of the 24-cell'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 right displacements of 60° each rather than 8 right displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell the characteristic right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° right rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_1&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_5&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|
|
|
|
|
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. In this ''great square right rotation of the 600-cell'' each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This rotation takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. In this ''great square left rotation of the 600-cell e''ach 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord. In 720° of this ''great hexagon right rotation of the 600-cell'' each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form five circular helixes of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic right rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its pentagram Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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      <id>2816459</id>
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      <text bytes="81785" sha1="0uh90uu71u0tn0tnqoxlbpd7ivsevum" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution of this ''great square right rotation of the tesseract'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant great square planes, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° of this ''great square right rotation of the 24-cell'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 right displacements of 60° each rather than 8 right displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell the characteristic right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° right rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_1&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_5&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;0\pi&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;4\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;4\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;4\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/3&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;2\pi/3&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/3&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;2\pi/3&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;2\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;3\pi/5&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/2&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\pi/2&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. In this ''great square right rotation of the 600-cell'' each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This rotation takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. In this ''great square left rotation of the 600-cell e''ach 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord. In 720° of this ''great hexagon right rotation of the 600-cell'' each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form five circular helixes of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic right rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its pentagram Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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      <text bytes="81563" sha1="go8slu9dkppn1eur4q1c8thr4qsrs4a" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution of this ''great square right rotation of the tesseract'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant great square planes, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° of this ''great square right rotation of the 24-cell'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 right displacements of 60° each rather than 8 right displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell the characteristic right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° right rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_1&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}=\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_5&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. In this ''great square right rotation of the 600-cell'' each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This rotation takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. In this ''great square left rotation of the 600-cell e''ach 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord. In 720° of this ''great hexagon right rotation of the 600-cell'' each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form five circular helixes of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic right rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its pentagram Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>go8slu9dkppn1eur4q1c8thr4qsrs4a</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816463</id>
      <parentid>2816460</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T17:46:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
        <id>2856930</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 600-cell */</comment>
      <origin>2816463</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="81381" sha1="omc70tbhiimwxgvd9er4wcwl5xlk2hv" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|-
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution of this ''great square rotation of the tesseract'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant great square planes, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° of this ''great square rotation of the 24-cell'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 16-cell &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic great hexagon rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon revolution requires 720° like a complete square revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell the characteristic great hexagon rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular helix of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This rotation takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. In this ''great square left rotation of the 600-cell e''ach 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic right rotation of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the 24-cell &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord. In 720° of this ''great hexagon right rotation of the 600-cell'' each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form five circular helixes of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic right rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its pentagram Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular helix of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>omc70tbhiimwxgvd9er4wcwl5xlk2hv</sha1>
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        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
        <id>2856930</id>
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      <text bytes="81363" sha1="8g54usyxc0jfht2qv0fbn46f4w8b6go" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant square central planes, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution of this ''great square rotation of the tesseract'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in completely orthogonal invariant great square planes, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° of this ''great square rotation of the 24-cell'' each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''characteristic great hexagon rotation of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon revolution requires 720° like a complete square revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell the characteristic great hexagon rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic great square rotation of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° isoclinic displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This rotation takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. In this ''great square left rotation of the 600-cell e''ach 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the characteristic great hexagon rotation of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord. In 720° of this ''great hexagon rotation of the 600-cell'' each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic great decagon rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its pentagram Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''characteristic left rotation of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>8g54usyxc0jfht2qv0fbn46f4w8b6go</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <text bytes="81230" sha1="iy3yaa4akbjchi8jepz0q4rjoj8e971" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_8=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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      <text bytes="81175" sha1="itstzi6xlzk2uts4ya75ftnivtapma5" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{16-cell-}r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816504</id>
      <parentid>2816500</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T22:03:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
        <id>2856930</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 24-cell */</comment>
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      <text bytes="81047" sha1="pf2p4efpugmu7gw0eotrs2n289k7ctc" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|-
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
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|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_5=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}=\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}=\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, by 90° in two completely orthogonal invariant great square planes over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{10}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>pf2p4efpugmu7gw0eotrs2n289k7ctc</sha1>
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      <text bytes="80871" sha1="krlp9f9stak7rqgum0lia2uf2w8iu3d" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. The &lt;math&gt;r_{5}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_2&lt;/math&gt; chord, and the &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chord is the &lt;math&gt;\text{24-cell-}r_4&lt;/math&gt; chord. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>krlp9f9stak7rqgum0lia2uf2w8iu3d</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816509</id>
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      <text bytes="80684" sha1="kojab57al2ct6neas6g513u2wpcajj6" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 36° right rotational displacement is a one-fifth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over 5 &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane over the 5 edges of a great pentagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a complete right revolution each vertex departs from 5 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 600-cell returns to its original orientation.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...  

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>kojab57al2ct6neas6g513u2wpcajj6</sha1>
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        <username>Dc.samizdat</username>
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      <text bytes="80119" sha1="iv1zb244v6cgjd4axl9jif3a19rekn1" xml:space="preserve">= Golden chords of the 120-cell =
{{align|center|David Brooks Christie}}
{{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}}
{{align|center|Draft in progress}}
{{align|center|January 2026 - June 2026}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;Steinbach discovered the formula for the ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. Fontaine and Hurley extended this result, discovering a formula for the reciprocal of a regular polygon chord derived geometrically from the chord's star polygon. We observe that these findings in plane geometry apply more generally, to polytopes of any dimensionality. Fontaine and Hurley's geometric procedure for finding the reciprocals of the chords of a regular polygon from their star polygons also finds the rotational geodesics of any polytope of any dimensionality.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
== Introduction ==
Steinbach discovered the Diagonal Product Formula and the Golden Fields family of ratios of diagonal to side in the regular polygons. He showed how this family extends beyond the pentagon {5} with its well-known golden bisection proportional to 𝜙, finding that the heptagon {7} has an analogous trisection, the nonagon {9} has an analogous quadrasection, and the hendecagon {11} has an analogous pentasection, an extended family of golden proportions with quasiperiodic properties. 

Kappraff and Adamson extended these findings in plane geometry to a theory of Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, showing that the Golden Fields not only do not end with the hendecagon, they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. They found a relation between the edges of star polygons and dynamical systems in the state of chaos, revealing a connection between chaos theory, number, and rotations in Coxeter Euclidean geometry. 

Fontaine and Hurley examined Steinbach's finding that the length of each chord of a regular polygon is both the product of two chords and the sum of a set of smaller chords, so that in rotations to add is to multiply. They illustrated Steinbach's sets of additive chords lying parallel to each other in the plane (pointing in the same direction), and by applying Steinbach's formula more generally they found another summation relation of signed parallel chords (pointing in opposite directions) which relates each chord length to its reciprocal, and relates the summation to a distinct star polygon rotation. 

We examine these remarkable findings (which stem from study of the chords of humble regular polygons) in higher-dimensional spaces, specifically in the chords, polygons and rotations of the [[120-cell]], the largest four-dimensional regular convex polytope.

== Visualizing the 120-cell ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:120-cell.gif|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point 120-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].{{Sfn|Hise|2011|loc=File:120-cell.gif|ps=; &quot;Created by Jason Hise with Maya and Macromedia Fireworks. A 3D projection of a 120-cell performing a [[W:SO(4)#Geometry of 4D rotations|simple rotation]].&quot;}} In this simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges are shown; its 29 interior chords are not rendered. Therefore even though it is translucent, only its outer surface is visible. The complex interior parts of the 120-cell, all its inscribed 5-cells, 16-cells, 8-cells, 24-cells, 600-cells and its much larger inventory of polyhedra, are completely invisible in this view, as none of their edges are rendered at all.
|style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;|[[File:Ortho solid 016-uniform polychoron p33-t0.png|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Orthographic projection of the 600-point [[W:Great grand stellated 120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{\tfrac{5}{2},3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;.{{Sfn|Ruen: Great grand stellated 120-cell|2007}} The 120-cell is its convex hull. The projection to the left renders only the 120-cell's shortest chord, its 1200 edges. The projection above also renders only one of the 120-cell's 30 chords, the edges of its 120 inscribed regular 5-cells. The 120-cell itself (the convex hull) is invisible in this view, as its edges are not rendered.
|}

[[120-cell#Geometry|The 120-cell is the maximally complex regular 4-polytope]], containing inscribed instances of every regular 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-polytope, except the regular polygons of more than {15} sides. 

The 120-cell is the convex hull of a regular [[120-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|compound of each of the 6 regular convex 4-polytopes]]. They are the [[5-cell|5-point (5-cell) 4-simplex]], the [[16-cell|8-point (16-cell) 4-orthoplex]], the [[W:Tesseract|16-point (8-cell) tesseract]], the [[24-cell|24-point (24-cell)]], the [[600-cell|120-point (600-cell)]], and the [[120-cell|600-point (120-cell)]]. The 120-cell is the convex hull of a compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells, of 75 disjoint 16-cells, of 25 disjoint 24-cells, and of 5 disjoint 600-cells.

The 120-cell contains an even larger inventory of irregular polytopes, created by the intersection of multiple instances of these component regular 4-polytopes. Many are quite unexpected, because they do not occur as components of any regular polytope smaller than the 120-cell. As just one example among the [[120-cell#Concentric hulls|sections of the 120-cell]], there is an irregular 24-point polyhedron with 16 triangle faces and 4 nonagon {9} faces.{{Sfn|Moxness|}}

Most renderings of the 120-cell, like the rotating projection here, only illustrate its outer surface, which is a honeycomb of face-bonded dodecahedral cells. Only the objects in its 3-dimensional surface are rendered, namely the 120 dodecahedra, their pentagon faces, and their edges. Although the 120-cell has chords of 30 distinct lengths, in this kind of simplified rendering only the 120-cell's own edges (its shortest chord) are shown. Its 29 interior chords, the edges of objects in the interior of the 120-cell, are not rendered, so interior objects are not visible at all.

Visualizing the complete interior of the 600-vertex 120-cell in a single image is impractical because of its complexity. Only four 120-cell edges are incident at each vertex, but [[120-cell#Chords|600 chords (of all 30 lengths)]] are incident at ''each'' vertex.

== Compounds in the 120-cell ==
The 8-point (16-cell), not the 5-point (5-cell), is the smallest building block; it compounds to every larger regular 4-polytope. The 5-point (5-cell) does compound to the 600-point (120-cell), but it does not fit into any smaller regular 4-polytope. 

The 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 2 in the 16-point (8-cell), and by 3 in the 24-point (24-cell). The 16-point (8-cell) compounds in the 24-point (24-cell) by 3 non-disjoint instances of itself, with each of the 24 vertices shared by two 16-point (8-cells). The 24-point (24-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell), and the 120-point (600-cell) compounds by 5 disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell).

The 24-point (24-cell) also compounds by 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; non-disjoint instances of itself in the 120-point (600-cell); it compounds in 5 disjoint instances of itself, 10 (not 5) different ways. Whichever set of 5 disjoint 24-point (24-cells) are assembled, the resulting 120-point (600-cell) contains 25 distinct 24-point (24-cells), not just 5 (or 10). This implies that 15 disjoint 8-point (16-cells) will construct a 120-point (600-cell), which will contain 75 distinct 8-point (16-cells). 

The 600-point (120-cell) is 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), just 2 different ways (not 5 or 10 ways), so it is 10 distinct 120-point (600-cells). This implies that the 8-point (16-cell) compounds by 3 times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (75) disjoint instances of itself in the 600-point (120-cell), which contains 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times  5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (225) distinct instances of the 24-point (24-cell), and  3&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; times 5&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (675) distinct instances of the 8-point (16-cell). 

These facts were discovered painstakingly by various researchers, and no one has found a general rule governing subsumption relations among regular polytopes. The reasons for some of their numeric incidence relations are far from obvious. [[W:Pieter Hendrik Schoute|Schoute]] was the first to see that the 120-point (600-cell) is a compound of 5 24-point (24-cells) ''10 different ways'', and after he saw it a hundred years lapsed until Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne proved his result, and showed why.{{Sfn|Denney, Hooker, Johnson, Robinson, Butler &amp; Claiborne|2020|loc=''The geometry of H4 polytopes''}}

So much for the compounds of 16-cells. The 120-cell is also the convex hull of the compound of 120 disjoint regular 5-cells. That stellated compound (without its convex hull of 120-cell edges) is the [[w:Great_grand_stellated_120-cell|great grand stellated 120-cell]] illustrated above, the final regular [[W:Stellation|stellation]] of the 120-cell, and the only [[W:Schläfli-Hess polychoron|regular star 4-polytope]] to have the 120-cell for its convex hull. The edges of the great grand stellated 120-cell are &lt;math&gt;\phi^6&lt;/math&gt; as long as those of its 120-cell [[W:List of polyhedral stellations#Stellation process|stellation core]] deep inside.

The compound of 120 disjoint 5-point (5-cells) can be seen to be equivalent to the compound of 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells), as follows. Beginning with a single 120-point (600-cell), expand each vertex into a regular 5-cell, by adding 4 new equidistant vertices, such that the 5 vertices form a regular 5-cell inscribed in the 3-sphere. The 120 5-cells are disjoint, and the 600 vertices form 5 disjoint 120-point (600-cells): a 120-cell.

== Thirty distinguished distances ==
The 30 numbers listed in the table are all-important in Euclidean geometry. A case can be made on symmetry grounds that their squares are the 30 most important numbers between 0 and 4. The 30 rows of the table are the 30 distinct [[120-cell#Geodesic rectangles|chord lengths of the unit-radius 120-cell]], the largest regular convex 4-polytope. Since the 120-cell subsumes all smaller regular polytopes, its 30 chords are the complete chord set of all the regular polytopes that can be constructed in the first four dimensions of Euclidean space, except for regular polygons of more than 15 sides.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|arc
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;math&gt;\left\{p\right\}&lt;/math&gt;
!rowspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;m\left\{\frac{k}{d}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!rowspan=2|Steinbach roots
!colspan=7|Chord lengths of the unit 120-cell
|-
!colspan=5|unit-radius length &lt;math&gt;c_t&lt;/math&gt;
!colspan=2|unit-edge length &lt;math&gt;c_t/c_1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;in 120-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;c_8=\sqrt{2}\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{1,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;15.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{30\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}-c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.270091&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^4}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.072949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;25.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{15\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(c_{18,1}-c_{4,1}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.437016&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} \phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.190983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;36{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{10\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3 \left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right) c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(\sqrt{5}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.381966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.28825&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;41.4{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.707107&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{5,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;44.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \left\{\frac{15}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{2,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.756934&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}}{\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2 \phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.572949}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.80252&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{6,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;49.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{17}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{5-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.831254&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5}}{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.690983}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.07768&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{7,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;56.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;0.93913&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{0.881966}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.47709&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;60{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{6\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.70246&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{9,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;66.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{2 \phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}-\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.09132&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{\phi }}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\chi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.04057&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{10,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;69.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2 \sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.14412&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi }{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{11,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;72{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{6}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{5\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.17557&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3-\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.38197}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \sqrt{3-\phi } \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.3525&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;75.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{24}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.22474&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.53457&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{13,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;81.1{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.30038&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{9-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(9-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.8146&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{14,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;84.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{40}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi } c_{8,1}}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{1+\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.345&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi }}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\sqrt{5} \phi }{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[4]{5} \sqrt{\phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;4.9798&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{15,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;90.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{4\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{4,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.41421&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.23607&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{16,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;95.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{29}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.4802&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.19098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(11-\sqrt{5}\right)} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.48037&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{17,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;98.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{31}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.51954&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{7+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(7+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\psi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.62605&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{18,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;104.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{8}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{4}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.58114&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5} \sqrt{\phi ^4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{19,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;108.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{9}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{10}{3}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{3,1}+c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.61803&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;5.9907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{20,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;110.2{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.64042&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13-\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13-\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.69098}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\phi ^2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.07359&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{21,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;113.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{60}{19}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.67601&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{1}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\chi }{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.20537&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{22,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;120{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{10}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{3\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.73205&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{6} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.41285&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{23,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;124.0{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{120}{41}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{\phi }+\frac{5}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{5}{2}+\frac{2}{1+\sqrt{5}}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.7658&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4-\frac{\psi }{2 \phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.11803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\chi  \phi ^5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.53779&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{24,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;130.9{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{20}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.81907&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{11+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(11+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.30902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{\sqrt{5}}{\phi }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.73503&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{25,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;135.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{11}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{7+3 \sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.85123&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\phi ^2}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{\phi ^4}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.42705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^4&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.8541&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{26,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;138.6{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{12}{5}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.87083&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{7}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{7} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;6.92667&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{27,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;144{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{12}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{5}{2}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} \left(5+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.90211&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\phi +2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi }&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.61803}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{2 \phi +4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.0425&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{28,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;154.8{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{13}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}} c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.95167&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{13+\sqrt{5}}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{1}{4} \left(13+\sqrt{5}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.80902}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2 \sqrt{8-\frac{1}{\phi ^2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.22598&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{29,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;164.5{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{14}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{15}{7}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi  c_{12,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \left(1+\sqrt{5}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.98168&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}} \phi &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\frac{3 \phi ^2}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3.92705}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3} \phi ^3&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.33708&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;c_{30,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;180{}^{\circ}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{\frac{30}{15}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left\{2\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 c_{8,1}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{4.}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2 \sqrt{2} \phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;7.40492&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|rowspan=4 colspan=6|
|rowspan=4 colspan=4|
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; is the golden ratio:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi ^2-\phi -1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }+1=\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, and: &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi+1=\phi^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\phi }::1::\phi ::\phi ^2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1/\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; and &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; are the golden sections of &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi +\frac{1}{\phi }=\sqrt{5}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;1.618034&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\chi = (3\sqrt{5} + 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;3.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = (3\sqrt{5} - 1)/2&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\psi = 11/\chi = 22/(3\sqrt{5} + 1)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|&lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;2.854102&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The 16-cell 4-orthoplex ==
In 2-space we have the regular 8-point octagon, in 3-space the regular 8-point cube, and in 4-space the regular 8-point [[16-cell]].

A planar octagon with rigid edges of unit length has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_3=\sqrt{2}+1 \approx 2.414,r_4=\sqrt{4 + \sqrt{8}} \approx 2.613&lt;/math&gt;

The chord ratio &lt;math&gt;r_3=\sqrt{2}+1&lt;/math&gt; is a geometrical proportion, the [[W:Silver ratio|silver ratio]]. Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that:

:&lt;math&gt;r_3-r_1-r_1=1/r_3 \approx 0.414&lt;/math&gt;

Note that &lt;math&gt;r_3-2=1/r_3=\sqrt{2}-1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over three &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of an {8/3} octagram. Over the first &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord the displacement is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}+r_1&lt;/math&gt;. Over the second &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves in the opposite direction a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt; . Over the third &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord it moves a distance of &lt;math&gt;-r_1&lt;/math&gt;.

If we embed the planar octagon in 3-space, we can make it skew, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from three others instead of two others, at the vertices of a unit-edge cube with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1, r_2=\sqrt{2}, r_3=\sqrt{3}, r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

If we embed this cube in 4-space, we can skew it some more, repositioning its vertices so that each is one unit-edge length distant from six others instead of three others, at the vertices of a unit-edge 4-polytope with chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=1,r_2=1,r_3=1,r_4=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;

All of its chords except its long diameters are the same unit length as its edge. In fact they are its 24 edges, and it is a 16-cell of radius &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

[[File:octagon16cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of a regular 16-cell to the [[16-cell#Projections|B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only its edges are shown; its long diameter chords are not drawn. All 24 edges are the same length and none lie parallel to the projection plane. The octagon circumference is a Petrie polygon. The two disjoint squares lie in completely orthogonal central planes. The blue octagram is a Clifford polygon. ]]

The [[16-cell]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 8 vertices, 24 edges, 32 equilateral triangle faces, and 16 regular tetrahedron cells. It is the [[16-cell#Octahedral dipyramid|four-dimensional analogue of the octahedron]], and each of its four orthogonal central hyperplanes is an octahedron.

The only planar regular polygons found in the 16-cell are face triangles and central plane squares, but the 16-cell also contains a skew regular octagon, its [[W:Petrie polygon|Petrie polygon]].{{Efn|name=Petrie polygon of a honeycomb}} The chords of this regular octagon, which lies skew in 4-space, are those given above for the 16-cell, as opposed to those for the cube or the regular octagon in the plane. The 16-cell is a construct of 3 Petrie octagons which share the same 8 vertices but have disjoint sets of 8 edges each.

The regular octad has higher symmetry in 4-space than it does in 2-space. The 16-cell is the 4-[[w:Cross-polytope|orthoplex]], the simplest regular 4-polytope after the [[5-cell|4-simplex]]. All the larger regular convex 4-polytopes are compounds of the 16-cell. The regular octagon exhibits this high symmetry only when embedded in 4-space at the vertices of the 16-cell.

The 16-cell constitutes an [[W:Orthonormal basis|orthonormal basis]] for the choice of a 4-dimensional Cartesian reference frame, because its vertices define four orthogonal axes. The eight vertices of a unit-radius 16-cell are (±1, 0, 0, 0), (0, ±1, 0, 0), (0, 0, ±1, 0), (0, 0, 0, ±1). All vertices are connected by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges except opposite pairs. 

The vertex coordinates of the 16-cell form 6 central squares lying in 6 pairwise [[W:Orthogonal|orthogonal]] coordinate planes. Great squares in opposite planes that do not share an axis (e.g. in the ''xy'' and ''wz'' planes) are completely disjoint (they do not intersect at any vertices). These planes are [[W:Completely orthogonal|completely orthogonal]].{{Efn|name=Six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}

Since the unit-radius coordinate system is convenient, let us derive the unit-radius 16-cell by skewing a unit-radius planar octagon, which has chords of length:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2-\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.765,r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2+\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.848,r_4=2&lt;/math&gt;

We will need a planar octagon with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords, rather than one with rigid &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; edges. The octagon's &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords form two disjoint great squares, visible in the orthogonal projection, which we can reposition in 3-space to form a cube by making them parallel, and in 4-space to form a 16-cell by making them completely orthogonal.

Since the edges of the 16-cell are all the same length &lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{2},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, those chords are distinct only in the context of a rotation. Each chord is a 4-vector with a length and a direction. The rotational curve over each &lt;math&gt;r_i&lt;/math&gt; chord makes &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; 45° turns.

[[File:16-cell-orig.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 8-point 16-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,4\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a double rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}}]]
[[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]] can be seen as the composition of two 2-dimensional rotations in completely orthogonal planes. The general rotation in 4-space is a [[W:SO(4)#Double rotations|double rotation]] in pairs of completely orthogonal planes. Two completely orthogonal planes are called invariant planes of the rotation when all points in the plane rotate on circles that remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways (like a coin flipping) into another plane. The two completely orthogonal rotations of each plane (like a wheel, and like a coin flipping) are simultaneous but independent, in that they are not geometrically constrained to turn at the same rate. However, the most circular kind of rotation (as opposed to an elliptical double rotation of a rigid spherical object) occurs when the completely orthogonal planes do rotate through the same angle in the same time interval. Such equi-angled double rotations are called [[w:SO(4)#Isoclinic_rotations|isoclinic]], also [[w:William_Kingdon_Clifford|Clifford]] displacements.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a Petrie polygon which zig-zags back and forth, in the left and right rotational directions, between two completely orthogonal great squares formed by &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords.

The &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; chords of two completely orthogonal great squares lie parallel and perpendicular to each other. A ''simple'' rotation of the 16-cell in ''one'' of those two square central planes rotates that square like a wheel, while the other square does not move.{{Efn|name=simple rotations}} The four vertices of the rotating square orbit on a great circle in the plane.

The &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords of the 16-cell form a circular helix, visible as a blue {8/3} octagram in the orthogonal projection. A ''double'' rotation of the 16-cell, in both of two completely orthogonal invariant &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; square planes at once by equal angles, moves the eight vertices along the circular helix over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords. The vertex motion is a [[w:Geodesic|geodesic]] circle orbit on the 3-sphere of a special kind: it does not lie in a central plane, its [[w:Winding_number|winding number]] is not 1 (it is 3 in this case), its circumference is not &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt;, and it moves in either a left or right handed circular spiral. We shall refer to such a chiral circle orbit as an ''isocline'', and to the skew polygram of its rotational chords as a ''Clifford polygon''.

The 16-cell is the simplest possible frame in which to [[16-cell#Rotations|observe 4-dimensional rotations]] because its characteristic rotations feature a single pair of invariant rotation planes. In the 16-cell an isoclinic rotation by 90° in any pair of invariant completely orthogonal square central planes takes every great square to its completely orthogonal great square in a twisting displacement, as the invariant planes tilt sideways 90° into each other's plane while rotating 90° internally. All the vertices move at once along the same circular helix geodesic isocline of &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, displaced 90° in 8 orthogonal directions, and the rigid 16-cell assumes a new orientation in 4-space. When the 90° isoclinic rotation is continued in the same rotational direction through an additional 90°, each vertex is again displaced 90°, but from the new orientation in a direction orthogonal to its first 90° displacement. The rotational curve over each 90° &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chord makes three 45° turns. In 360° of isoclinic rotation over four &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, each vertex makes six 90° turns and reaches its antipodal position.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 90° isoclinic rotational displacement is a one-eighth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over eight &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the four &lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great square in one of the two moving invariant rotation planes. In the course of a 720° isoclinic revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 16-cell returns to its original orientation.

Because this is the isoclinic rotation of the 16-cell in its invariant great circle edge planes we shall refer to it as the ''great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell'', and note once again that it is Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt; star polygon, which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_3&lt;/math&gt;.

== The 8-cell tesseract ==
The long diameter of the unit-edge [[W:Hypercube|hypercube]] of dimension &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{n}&lt;/math&gt;, so the unit-edge [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube, the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract,]] has chords:
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;
Uniquely in its 4-dimensional case, the hypercube's edge length equals its radius, like the hexagon. We call such polytopes ''radially equilateral'', because they can be constructed from equilateral triangles which meet at their center, each contributing two radii and an edge. The [[w:Cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]] and the 24-cell are also radially equilateral.

[[File:8-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 16-point (8-cell) tesseract &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation about a plane in 4-space.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The stationary plane bisects the figure from front-left to back-right and top to bottom.]]
The [[W:Tesseract|tesseract]] is the [[W:Regular convex 4-polytope|regular convex 4-polytope]] with [[W:Schläfli symbol|Schläfli symbol]] &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{4,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 16 vertices, 32 edges, 24 square faces, and 8 cube cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cube.

The 16-point tesseract is the convex hull of a compound of two 8-point 16-cells, in exact dimensional analogy to the way the 8-point cube is the convex hull of a [[W:Stellated octahedron|compound of two 4-point regular tetrahedra]]. The [[W:Demihypercube|demihypercubes]] occupy alternate vertices of the hypercubes. The diagonals of the square faces of the unit-edge, unit-radius tesseract are the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges of two unit-radius 16-cells, also the edges of the square central planes.

We can rotate the tesseract isoclinically the way we rotated the 16-cell, by 90° in the great square right rotation, with the same effect on both alternate-position 16-cells. In the course of a 720° revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cell. The two skew {8/3} octagram Clifford polygons lie on two disjoint parallel isoclines of the same chirality, of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chords. They form a circular double helix which intersects each vertex of the tesseract once.

The tesseract is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 16-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew octagon, but the tesseract is a construct of 4 Petrie octagons with disjoint sets of 8 tesseract edges each. We can construct the tesseract by skewing two planar octagons. Because the tesseract is radially equilateral (unlike the 16-cell), we use two octagons of unit-edge length to build the unit-radius tesseract. To start we embed the planar octagons in 4-space at the same point and make them completely orthogonal. Then we skew each planar octagon into a cube, so we have a compound of two completely orthogonal cubes, provided we skewed them both in the same direction. The 16 vertices will be the vertices of a tesseract with half its 32 edges missing.

Because the tesseract contains two 16-cells in alternate positions it has two sets of 6 orthogonal square central planes. Two angles are required to specify the relationship between two planes in 4-space. Pairs of square central planes within each 16-cell are 90° apart in one angle, and either 0° or 90° apart in the other angle. They are 90° apart in both angles if and only if they are completely orthogonal planes, 90° apart by isoclinic rotation, with no vertices in common. Otherwise they are 0° apart in one of the angles, 90° apart by simple rotation, and they intersect in one axis and lie in a common 3-dimensional hyperplane.{{Efn|A double rotation in which one of the two angles of rotation is 0°, so that one of the completely orthogonal invariant planes does not rotate, is called a simple rotation. Ordinary rotations observed in a 3-dimensional space are simple rotations.|name=simple rotations}}

A pair of square central planes from alternate-position 16-cells are 60° apart by isoclinic rotation, with their corresponding vertices 120° apart. The planes are not orthogonal or parallel, so they intersect in a line somewhere, but they have no vertices in common, they have no 3-dimensional hyperplane in common, and they cannot reach each other by simple rotation. Such pairs of objects are called [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] because all their corresponding pairs of vertices are the same distance apart, although they are not parallel in the usual sense, because they have a common center. Not only the alternate-position 16-cells' corresponding square central planes, but also the 16-cells themselves, are Clifford parallel objects. More generally, multiple disjoint instances of a 4-polytope which compound to make a larger 4-polytope are Clifford parallel objects.

== The 24-cell ==
[[File:24-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the radially equilateral 24-cell, showing its 3 great circle polygons and its 4 chord lengths.]]
In 2-space we have the radially equilateral 6-point hexagon. In 3-space we have the radially equilateral 12-point cuboctahedron, with 4 hexagonal central planes. In 4-space we have the radially equilateral 24-point 24-cell, with 12 cuboctahedron central hyperplanes and 16 hexagonal central planes.

The [[24-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 24 vertices, 96 edges, 96 equilateral triangle faces, and 24 octahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the cuboctahedron.

The 24-cell has the same chord set as the 4-hypercube tesseract:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{2},r_3=\sqrt{3},r_4=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:24-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 24-point 24-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,4,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2007}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 24 octahedra is visible.]]
The 24-cell is [[W:Dual polytope|self-dual]], like the regular polygons and regular simplexes. It is the maximal regular construct of triangles and squares (with no pentagons). It is the convex hull of a compound of three disjoint 8-point 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. Each of the three pairs of 16-cells is a tesseract. Each 24-cell edge is also a tesseract edge. The corresponding vertices of two 16-cells or two tesseracts are 120° apart by a &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chord. Each tesseract has 8 cube cells, and each cube has four &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; long diameters. The &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords joining the corresponding vertices of two tesseracts belong to the third tesseract as cell long diameters.

The 24-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular dodecagon {12}, which has chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}-1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 0.518,r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\tfrac{\sqrt{3}+1}{\sqrt{2}} \approx 1.932,r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Fontaine and Hurley's procedure for obtaining the reciprocal of a chord tells us that: 

:&lt;math&gt;r_5-r_3+r_1+r_1-r_3=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;

when &lt;math&gt;r_1=1&lt;/math&gt;. The procedure rotates counterclockwise over five &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of a {12/5} dodecagram. In the system of unit-radius coordinates &lt;math&gt;r_1=1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;.

The &lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords of the planar dodecagon do not occur in the 24-cell, which is a construct of eight skew dodecagons with disjoint sets of twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges each. In the skew dodecagons the chord lengths are:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=\sqrt{1},r_2=\sqrt{1},r_3=\sqrt{2},r_4=\sqrt{3},r_5=\sqrt{3},r_6=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

[[File:dodecagon24cell.png|thumb|Orthogonal projection of half a 24-cell to the [[24-cell#Geodesics|F&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; Coxeter plane]]. Only one Petrie dodecagon {12} of the 24-cell is shown. In a unit-radius 24-cell, all black lines are 24-cell edges of unit length, also tesseract edges. The two disjoint hexagons lie in Clifford parallel central planes. Blue chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; 16-cell edges, also isocline chords in square rotations. Green chords are &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; distances between corresponding vertices of two 16-cells, also isocline chords in hexagon rotations. The green {12/5} dodecagram is a Clifford polygon.]]
[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell, with the same effect on all three 16-cells. In 720° each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, but it does not visit the vertex positions of the other 16-cells. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Three Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular triple helix {24/9}=3{8/3} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once.

[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 24-cell isoclinically in 4 Clifford parallel invariant great hexagon planes containing its &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges, over &lt;math&gt;r_{5}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This is the ''great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell'', also Fontaine and Hurley's rotation over the &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; star polygon which constructs &lt;math&gt;1/r_5&lt;/math&gt;. A complete hexagon right revolution requires 720° like a complete square right revolution, but it is completed in 12 isoclinic displacements of 60° each rather than 8 isoclinic displacements of 90° each. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chord makes five 30° turns. Two Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular double helix {24/10}=2{12/5} that intersects each 24-cell vertex once. 

In the 24-cell a great hexagon right rotation by 60° in any invariant hexagon central plane takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 60° while rotating 60° internally. It also takes every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The 16-cells revolve within the 24-cell as well as rotating within it. All 24 vertices move at once on two Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 120° in different directions.

The trajectory of each vertex over each 60° rotational displacement is a one-twelfth segment of its geodesic orbit. Its entire orbit traces an isocline circle in 4-space of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; over twelve &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords, and also traces an ordinary great circle in the plane twice, over the six &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of a great hexagon in a moving invariant rotation plane. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions just once and returns to its original position, and the 24-cell returns to its original orientation.

== The 600-cell ==
[[Image:600-cell.gif|thumb|Orthographic projection of the 120-point 600-cell &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; performing a simple rotation.{{Sfn|Hise|2011}} The 3-dimensional surface made of 600 tetrahedra is visible. Invisible in this rendering are 25 inscribed instances of the 24-cell (above), which occur in the 600-cell as interior boundary envelopes.]]
The [[600-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{3,3,5\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 120 vertices, 720 edges, 1200 equilateral triangle faces, and 600 tetrahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the icosahedron.

The 600-cell rounds out the 24-cell by adding 96 more vertices (four more disjoint 24-cells) between the 24-cell's existing 24 vertices, in effect adding twenty-four more distinct 24-cells inscribed in the 600-cell. The new surface thus formed is a honeycomb of smaller, more numerous cells: tetrahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt; instead of octahedra of edge length &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;. It encloses the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edges of the 24-cells, which become invisible interior chords in the 600-cell, like the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; chords.

Since the tetrahedra are made of shorter triangle edges than the octahedra (by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, the inverse golden ratio), the 600-cell is not radially equilateral like the 24-cell and the tesseract. Like them it is radially triangular in a special way, but one in which [[w:Golden_triangle_(mathematics)|golden triangles]] rather than equilateral triangles meet at the center.

In 2-space we have the ''radially golden'' [[W:Decagon#The golden ratio in decagon|regular decagon]]. In 3-space we have the radially golden 30-point [[W:icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]], with 6 decagon central planes. In 4-space we have the radially golden 120-point 600-cell, with 60 icosidodecahedron central hyperplanes and 72 decagon central planes.

The 600-cell's Petrie polygon is the regular [[w:Triacontagon|triacontagon {30}]]. The unit-radius planar {30}-gon has these distinct chords:

:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.209&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.416&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 0.813&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.338&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \cos (\tfrac{7\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.486&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \cos (\tfrac{4\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.827&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \cos (\tfrac{2\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.956&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \cos (\tfrac{\pi}{15}/2) \approx 1.989&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Only the chord lengths &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_6&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_9&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt; occur in the 600-cell, which is a construct of 24 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;, six of which intersect in each icosahedral vertex figure. In the skew {30}-gons the chord lengths are:

[[File:600-cell vertex geometry.png|thumb|Planar geometry of the 600-cell, showing its 5 regular great circle polygons and its 8 chord lengths with angles of arc. The golden ratio governs the fractional roots of every other chord, and the radial golden triangles which meet at the center.|400x400px]]
:&lt;math&gt;r_1=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_2=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_3=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{5}/2)=\phi^{-1} \approx 0.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_4=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_5=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_6=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{3-\phi} \approx 1.176&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_7=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_8=2 \sin (\tfrac{\pi}{2}/2)=\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_9=2 \sin (\tfrac{3\pi}{5}/2)=\phi \approx 1.618&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{10}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{11}=2 \sin (\tfrac{2\pi}{3}/2)=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{12}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{13}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{14}=2 \sin (\tfrac{4\pi}{5}/2)=\sqrt{2+\phi} \approx 1.902&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r_{15}=2 \sin (\pi/2)=\sqrt{4}&lt;/math&gt;

Where chords are the same length, they are distinct only in the context of a rotation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; |15 chords (4 distinct 180° pairs) make 4 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short edge chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long isocline chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0°
|180°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_1&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}=2{15/7}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|12°
|168°
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_2&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|24°
|156°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V1 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|36°
|144°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_4&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|48°
|132°
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_5&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V2 dodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Dodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|60°
|120°
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{6}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V3 icosahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{9}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|72°
|108°
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{7}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:V4 icosidodecahedron.png|100px]]&lt;br&gt;Icosidodecahedron
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |&lt;math&gt;r_{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|84°
|96°
|}

The list of 600-cell chords &lt;math&gt;r_{i}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 8 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. The short chord and long chord each have their characteristic {30/n}-gon. Each row identifies a discrete isoclinic rotation of the 600-cell in invariant central planes containing the edges of the short chord {30}-gon, over the isocline chords of the long chord {30}-gon, the rotation's Clifford polygon.

Each distinct pair of complementary chord lengths is identified with a distinct [[w:600-cell#Polyhedral sections|polyhedral section of the 600-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 7 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is a icosahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; is an [[W:Icosidodecahedron|icosidodecahedron]] central section bisecting the 600-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal icosahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2+\phi}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 7 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section).

[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(8,3).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/9}=3{8/3} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great square right rotation characteristic of the 16-cell,  with the same effect on 15 disjoint 16-cells. Each 90° right displacement takes 15 pairs of completely orthogonal invariant great square planes to each other. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from all 8 vertex positions of its 16-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. The rotational curve over each 90° chord makes three 45° turns. Fifteen Clifford parallel {8/3} octagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;6\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of 15 twisted parallel strands 5{24/9}=15{8/3} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

The 600-cell has another distinct 90° isoclinic rotation in invariant great square planes, which has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. This ''great square left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' takes place over &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. The {30/7} edge polygon is a skew helix of circumference &lt;math&gt;14\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_7&lt;/math&gt; edge belonging to a distinct great square. The four {30/7} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. Each 90° left displacement takes every 16-cell to another 16-cell. The vertices of the invariant great squares each make seven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/7} edge makes seven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/7} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. The {30/8}=2{15/4} Clifford polygon is a compound of two skew {15/4} pentadecagrams of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; with each &lt;math&gt;r_8&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord belonging to a distinct 16-cell. The four {30/8} polygrams contribute one edge each to 30 great squares. The rotational curve over each 90° {30/8} isocline chord makes eight 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/8} geodesics of circumference &lt;math&gt;16\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once.

{{Clear}}
[[File:Regular star figure 2(12,5).svg|thumb|left|150px|{24/10}=2{12/5} &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt; ]]
We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in the great hexagon right rotation characteristic of the 24-cell, by 60° in great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords, with the same effect on 5 disjoint 24-cells. In the course of a 720° right revolution each vertex departs from 12 vertex positions of its 24-cell just once and returns to its original position, without visiting other vertex positions. Ten Clifford parallel {12/5} dodecagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;10\pi&lt;/math&gt; form a circular fibration of ten twisted parallel strands 5{24/10}=10{12/5} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The 600-cell has another distinct 60° isoclinic rotation in invariant great hexagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{4}=\sqrt{1}&lt;/math&gt; edge chords and &lt;math&gt;r_{11}=\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords This ''great hexagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. Its {30/11} Clifford polygon is a skew helix where each &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord is the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{3}&lt;/math&gt; diagonal of a great hexagon of a distinct 24-cell. The vertices of the invariant great hexagons of this rotation each make eleven orbits on a great circle within the moving invariant plane in the course of one complete left revolution. The rotational curve over each 120° &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chord makes eleven 12° turns. Four Clifford parallel {30/11} geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;22\pi&lt;/math&gt; over &lt;math&gt;r_{11}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular quadruple helix that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

We can rotate the 600-cell isoclinically in 12 Clifford parallel invariant decagon central planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{3}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon right rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 5 and takes disjoint 24-cells to each other. The rotational curve over each 144° &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chord of its {5/2} Clifford polygon makes twelve 12° turns. 24 Clifford parallel {5/2} pentagram geodesic isoclines of circumference &lt;math&gt;4\pi&lt;/math&gt; over five &lt;math&gt;r_{12}&lt;/math&gt; chords form a circular fibration of 24 twisted parallel strands 4{30/12}=24{5/2} that intersects each 600-cell vertex once. 

The right rotation of the 600-cell by 36° in any invariant decagon central plane takes every great decagon to a Clifford parallel great decagon in a twisting displacement, as all the central planes tilt sideways 36° while rotating 36° internally. It also takes every great hexagon to a Clifford parallel great hexagon in another 24-cell, and every great square to a Clifford parallel great square in another 16-cell; it takes 24-cells to a non-disjoint 24-cell and 16-cells to a non-disjoint 16-cell in another 24-cell. The 24-cells revolve within the 600-cell, as the 16-cells revolve within the 24-cells. All 120 vertices move at once on four Clifford parallel geodesic isoclines, displaced 144° in different directions.

The 600-cell has another distinct 36° isoclinic rotation in invariant great decagon planes, over &lt;math&gt;r_{2}&lt;/math&gt; edges and &lt;math&gt;r_{13}&lt;/math&gt; isocline chords. This ''great decagon left rotation characteristic of the 600-cell'' has period 30 and visits every vertex of a 600-cell Petrie polygon. ...

{{Clear}}

== The 5-cell 4-simplex ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable floatright&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |30 chords (15 180° pairs) make 15 distinct section polyhedra
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Short chord
! Section
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Long chord
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_0&lt;/math&gt;
|0°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_15(2,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/15}=15{2}
|180°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{30}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0}}
|{{radic|4}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0
|2
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;
|15.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_polygon_30.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/1}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,7).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/14}
|164.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.073~}}
|{{radic|3.927~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.270~
|1.982~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt;
|25.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/2}=2{15}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-13.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/13}
|154.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{28}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.191~}}
|{{radic|3.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.437~
|1.952~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_3&lt;/math&gt;
|36°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/3}=3{10}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/12}=6{5/2}
|144°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{27}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.382~}}
|{{radic|3.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|0.618~
|1.902~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_4&lt;/math&gt;
|41.4~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|138.6~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{26}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.5}}
|{{radic|3.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.707~
|1.871~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_5&lt;/math&gt;
|44.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,2).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/4}=2{15/2}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-11.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/11}
|135.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{25}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.573~}}
|{{radic|3.427~}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|0.757~
|1.851~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_6&lt;/math&gt;
|49.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|130.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{24}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.691~}}
|{{radic|3.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.831~
|1.819~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_7&lt;/math&gt;
|56°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|124°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{23}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.882~}}
|{{radic|3.118~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|0.939~
|1.766~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_8&lt;/math&gt;
|60°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_5(6,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/5}=5{6}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_10(3,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/10}=10{3}
|120°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{22}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1}}
|{{radic|3}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1
|1.732~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_9&lt;/math&gt;
|66.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|113.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{21}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.191~}}
|{{radic|2.809~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.091~
|1.676~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{10}&lt;/math&gt;
|69.8~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|110.2~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{20}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.309~}}
|{{radic|2.691~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.144~
|1.640~
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{11}&lt;/math&gt;
|72°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_6(5,1).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/6}=6{5}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_3(10,3).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/9}=3{10/3}
|108°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{19}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.382~}}
|{{radic|2.618~}}
|- style=&quot;background: yellow;&quot; |
|1.176~
|1.618~
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{12}&lt;/math&gt;
|75.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_figure_2(15,4).svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/8}=2{15/4}
|104.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{18}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.5}}
|{{radic|2.5}}
|- style=&quot;background: palegreen;&quot; |
|1.224~
|1.581~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{13}&lt;/math&gt;
|81.1~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|98.9~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{17}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|1.691~}}
|{{radic|2.309~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.300~
|1.520~
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro; height:50px&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{14}&lt;/math&gt;
|84.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|95.5~°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{16}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|{{radic|0.809~}}
|{{radic|2.191~}}
|- style=&quot;background: gainsboro;&quot; |
|1.345~
|1.480~
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[File:Regular_star_polygon_30-7.svg|100px]]&lt;br&gt;{30/7}
|90°
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt;
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|{{radic|2}}
|{{radic|2}}
|- style=&quot;background: seashell;&quot; |
|1.414~
|1.414~
|}

The [[User:Dc.samizdat/Golden chords of the 120-cell#Thirty distinguished distances|list of thirty 120-cell chords]] &lt;math&gt;c_{t}&lt;/math&gt; can be rearranged into a table of 16 rows and 2 columns with a pair of 180° complements in each row. This table first appears in [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|''Regular Polytopes'']] (1947),{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=Table V(v): Simplified sections of {5,3,3} beginning with a vertex|pp=300-301}} where Coxeter identified each row with a distinct [[w:120-cell#Concentric_hulls|polyhedral section of the 120-cell]] beginning with a vertex. In spherical [[w:3-sphere|3-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]], every vertex is the center of a set of 29 concentric polyhedra of increasing radii that nest like [[w:Matryoshka_doll|Russian dolls.]] The smallest polyhedral section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; is a tetrahedron vertex figure, and the largest section at radial distance &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; is a central section bisecting the 120-cell. Because  [[w:3-sphere|&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{S}^3&lt;/math&gt;]] is spherical, at radial distances greater than &lt;math&gt;c_{15}&lt;/math&gt; the successive complement-radius polyhedra decrease in size, to the antipodal tetrahedron vertex figure at distance &lt;math&gt;c_{29}&lt;/math&gt;. In Euclidean 4-dimensional space &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, every vertex is the apex of 29 [[w:Hyperpyramid|polyhedral pyramids]], where the pyramid's lateral edge length is the radial distance and its base polyhedron is the section. Each section lies parallel to a congruent complement-radius section (or coincident with it, in the case of the central section). Each section also lies completely orthogonal to a congruent section. 

Only 8 of the 30 chords in the table occur in the 600-cell and the planar {30)-gon. The 120-cell's additional chords arise originally from the regular 5-cell, in its interaction with the other regular 4-polytopes that compound to make the 120-cell. Since all those polytopes except the 5-cell occur in the 600-cell, and the 600-cell and the 120-cell have the same symmetry group, the 5-cell's symmetry group is what's new in the 120-cell.

...

{{Clear}}
== Finally the 120-cell ==
The [[120-cell]] is the regular convex 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol &lt;small&gt;&lt;math&gt;\{5,3,3\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/small&gt;. It has 600 vertices, 1200 edges, 720 pentagon faces, and 120 dodecahedron cells. It is the four-dimensional analogue of the dodecahedron.

The 120-cell is the [[W:Dual polytope|dual polytope]] of the 600-cell. They have the same Petrie polygon, the regular skew triacontagon {30}, but the 120-cell is a construct of 40 Petrie {30}-gons of edge length &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt;, two of which intersect in each tetrahedral vertex figure.

... 

{{Clear}}

== Conclusions ==

Fontaine and Hurley's discovery is more than a geometric formula for the reciprocal of a regular ''n''-polygon diagonal. It also yields the discrete sequence of isocline chords of the characteristic isoclinic rotation of a ''d''-dimensional polytope in its invariant edge planes. The characteristic rotational chord sequence of the ''d''-polytope can be represented geometrically in two dimensions on a distinct star polygon, but it lies on a geodesic circle through ''d''-dimensional space. Fontaine and Hurley discovered the geodesic topology of polytopes generally. Their procedure will reveal the geodesics of arbitrary non-uniform polytopes, since it can be applied to a polytope of any dimensionality and irregularity, by first fitting the polytope to the smallest regular polygon whose chords include its chords. [If what is meant by this is its Petrie polygon, it is not quite necessary or possible with respect to the planar polygon chords, e.g. the planar Petrie polygon of the 600-cell does not contain the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; chord. But perhaps it would work if the fit is to the smallest regular skew polygon in the ''d''-space.]

The discovery of a chordal construction for discrete isoclinic rotations generally closes the circuit on Kappraff and Adamson's discovery of a rotational connection between dynamical systems, Steinbach's golden fields, and Coxeter's Euclidean geometry of ''n'' dimensions. Application of the Fontaine and Hurley procedure in the 120-cell demonstrates why the connection exists: because polytope sequences generally, from Steinbach's golden chord sequences in polygons, to sequences of star polygons in isoclinic rotations, to subsumption relations in the sequence of regular 4-polytopes, arise as expressions of the reflections and rotations of distinct Coxeter symmetry groups, when those various groups interact.

== Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes ==
{{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=1997 | title=Golden fields: A case for the Heptagon | journal=Mathematics Magazine | volume=70 | issue=Feb 1997 | pages=22–31 | doi=10.1080/0025570X.1997.11996494 | jstor=2691048 | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|1997}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last=Steinbach | first=Peter | year=2000 | title=Sections Beyond Golden| journal=Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music and Science | issue=2000 | pages=35-44 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2000/bridges2000-35.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Steinbach|2000}}}}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Jablan | first2=Slavik | last3=Adamson | first3=Gary | last4=Sazdanovich | first4=Radmila | year=2004 | title=Golden Fields, Generalized Fibonacci Sequences, and Chaotic Matrices | journal=Forma | volume=19 | pages=367-387 | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2005/bridges2005-369.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff, Jablan, Adamson &amp; Sazdanovich|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Kappraff | first1=Jay | last2=Adamson | first2=Gary | year=2004 | title=Polygons and Chaos | journal=Dynamical Systems and Geometric Theories | url=https://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2001/bridges2001-67.pdf | ref={{SfnRef|Kappraff &amp; Adamson|2004}} }}
* {{Cite journal | last1=Fontaine | first1=Anne | last2=Hurley | first2=Susan | year=2006 | title=Proof by Picture: Products and Reciprocals of Diagonal Length Ratios in the Regular Polygon | journal=Forum Geometricorum | volume=6 | pages=97-101 | url=https://scispace.com/pdf/proof-by-picture-products-and-reciprocals-of-diagonal-length-1aian8mgp9.pdf }}
{{Refend}}</text>
      <sha1>iv1zb244v6cgjd4axl9jif3a19rekn1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:WikiJournal Preprints/Pentagram map</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>326949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2816505</id>
      <parentid>2815950</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T22:07:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Regliste</username>
        <id>3029369</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Peer review 3 */ corrected link</comment>
      <origin>2816505</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12387" sha1="4q50wknpcay340r965ypep155rcx51u" xml:space="preserve">== Slight modifications of the article ==

Hello,&lt;br&gt;
I imported this page from the Wikipedia article, which I revamped. But since the import, some contributors made helpful comments and edits. I tried to update them all here, but now I stopped and I will just re-import the Wikipedia article when the peer-review process will start. Please notify me when it happens, or re-import it yourself {{=)}}. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 09:48, 13 January 2026 (UTC)

==Peer review 1==
{{review
 |reviewer   =Sanjay Ramassamy
 |Q          =Q102641962
 |affiliation=Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, CEA, Institut de Physique Théorique
 |link       =https://www.normalesup.org/~ramassamy/index.html.en
 |date       = 1 June 2026
 |text       =
This review article is very well-written, mathematically sound and accessible to people outside the field. I only have minor comments below, most of them typos. I recommend publishing the article once the comments are taken into account.

General comment: There are several figures next to the text, but the figures don't seem to be cited in the text. I don't know if this is a journal policy, but it looks a bit unusual to me.

Second sentence of the abstract: there is twice &quot;&quot;a new polygon&quot;&quot;. Maybe you could rephrase it in a way to eliminate one of the occurrences. E.g. something like &quot;&quot;It defines a new polygon whose vertices are obtained as the intersection points of the shortest diagonals of the initial polygon.&quot;&quot;

End of first paragraph of the abstract: maybe you could already reference Schwartz's original paper here.

Euclidean plane: please capitalize the first letter of &quot;&quot;Euclidean&quot;&quot; throughout the article

Section &quot;&quot;On polygons&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;Finally, it is possible that two diagonals are parallel and not intersect&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;and don't intersect&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;On the moduli space of polygons&quot;&quot;: it is the first time that I see the term &quot;&quot;projectivity&quot;&quot;. I checked that it was indeed correct, but in all the talks/articles that I have seen on the topic, people rather used &quot;&quot;up to projective transformations&quot;&quot;.

Section &quot;&quot;Historical elements&quot;&quot;, last sentence: it is not too clear what that sentence means. The pentagram map pertains to the field of incidence geometry, like these 3 theorems. What are the further similarities ? Further down in the article, in the section &quot;&quot;Pentagons and hexagons&quot;&quot;, there is a similar sentence: &quot;&quot;The action of the pentagram map on pentagons and hexagons is similar in spirit to classical configuration theorems in projective geometry such as Pascal's theorem, Desargues's theorem and others&quot;&quot;. Is it just the case of pentagons and hexagons that resembles these theorems ?

Section &quot;&quot;Definition of the map&quot;&quot;, first paragraph: it looks strange to cite Weinreich's paper to justify the rather obvious fact that the dimension of the space of n-gons is 2n. More generally, for review articles in WikiJournal, what is the purpose of citations ? Providing a source where something is nicely explained ? Or providing the first source to show some result ? In this article, it seems to be rather the former.

Section &quot;&quot;Definition of the map&quot;&quot;, second paragraph: &quot;&quot;Taking the intersection of the two...&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;Taking the intersection of two...&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;Twisted polygons&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;space of twisted n-gon&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;space of twisted n-gons&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;the dynamic&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;the dynamics&quot;&quot; It comes with a final s even though it is singular, e.g. &quot;&quot;the dynamics is integrable&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;Pentagons and hexagons&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;The two following facts&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;The following two facts&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;Poncelet polygons&quot;&quot;: circumbscribed -&gt; circumscribed

Section &quot;&quot;Poncelet polygons&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;For a convex Poncelet n-gons&quot;&quot; -&gt; n-gon

Section &quot;&quot;ab-coordinates&quot;&quot;: I would write &quot;&quot;vertices v_k&quot;&quot; and &quot;&quot;vectors V_k&quot;&quot; rather than &quot;&quot;vertices v_k's&quot;&quot; and &quot;&quot;vectors V_k's&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;As a birational map&quot;&quot;: you have twice in a row the word pentagram in the first line

Section &quot;&quot;The scaling symmetry&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;an s&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;and s&quot;&quot;. 

Section &quot;&quot;The scaling symmetry&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;An homogeneous&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;A homogeneous&quot;&quot;. Why do you define the notion of weight in this section ? It looks weird because you don't use it immediately, but only towards the end of the next section. It would suggest moving it much closer to the place where you first use it.

Section &quot;&quot;The spectral curve&quot;&quot;, last sentence: here you write &quot;&quot;algebraic integrability&quot;&quot;. In the next sentence it is called &quot;&quot;algebro-geometric integrability&quot;&quot;. I prefer the latter formulation.

Section &quot;&quot;The spectral curve&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;some renormalization it&quot;&quot; -&gt; missing &quot;&quot;of&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;Algebro-geometric integrability&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;in term of&quot;&quot; -&gt; terms

Section &quot;&quot;Dimension of the invariant manifold&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;For a twisted n-gons&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;For twisted n-gons&quot;&quot;

Section &quot;&quot;Dimension of the invariant manifold&quot;&quot;: what does it mean that the dimension of the invariant tori drops by 3 for closed n-gons ? That it is always n-3 regardless of the parity of n ? Shouldn't invariant tori always be even-dimensional ? Maybe make a separate sentence discussing the closed n-gons case.

Section &quot;&quot;Cluster algebras&quot;&quot;: rather than &quot;&quot;special cases of cluster algebra&quot;&quot;, I would suggest something like &quot;&quot;special cases of discrete dynamical systems powered by cluster algebras&quot;&quot;. Because the pentagram map itself is not a cluster algebra. Also, the mutations of the underlying cluster algebra induced by the pentagram map are only a subset of all possible mutations.

Section &quot;&quot;Generalizations&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;description ... as cluster algebras&quot;&quot; -&gt; maybe &quot;&quot;in terms of cluster algebras&quot;&quot; ?

Section &quot;&quot;Generalized pentagram maps&quot;&quot;: it could be helpful to write that one recovers the original pentagram map by taking d=2, I={2}, J={1}. What surprises me is that for this original pentagram map the set I and J are not equal and yet it is integrable. How is that compatible with the statement that &quot;&quot;the general case is not integrable&quot;&quot; ? Also, just below, the dented pentagram maps provide another class of integrable examples where I and J are not equal. How do you quantify that most cases are not integrable.

Section &quot;&quot;Corrugated polygons&quot;&quot;: &quot;&quot;they can retrieved&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;they can be retrieved&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;Grassmannians polygons&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;Grassmannian polygons&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;the space of Grassmannians Gr(m,md)&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;the Grassmannian space Gr(m,md)&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;A point in v&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;A point v&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;general linear group Gl_{md}&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;general linear group GL_{md}&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;faithfull&quot;&quot; -&gt; faithful

&quot;&quot;generically define&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;generically defines&quot;&quot;

&quot;&quot;a new point of v&quot;&quot; -&gt; &quot;&quot;a new point v&quot;&quot;

}}

{{response|1 =Hello, and thanks a lot for the thorough review. I am a bit embarrassed by the numerous typos, they are now fixed. I also reformulated many items following your suggestions. There remains two points I need to answer to.
* Indeed, the citation of papers (even for obvious facts) is more frequent than in classical papers. This is because Wikipedia aims to have every statement linked to a reference (see [[w:Wikipedia:Verifiability]]). Some editors take this very seriously (see [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia%20talk:WikiProject%20Mathematics/Archive/2025/Dec this discussion]), so I added citations to almost every paragraphs. I guess it could be mitigated for publication.
* I clarified the statement about the dimension of invariant manifolds for closed polygons, with one more citation. According to it, they will always be odd-dimensional.
Thanks again, [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 15:44, 2 June 2026 (UTC)}}

== Peer review 2 ==

{{review
 |reviewer   =Paul Melotti
 |Q          = Q103240269
 |affiliation=Université Paris-Saclay
 |link       =https://www.imo.universite-paris-saclay.fr/~paul.melotti/
 |date       = 11 June 2026
 |text       =
This is a very well-written summary of results on the pentagram map, a fascinating topic that deserved a good presentation in the wikipedia universe. The paper is presented in a clear and coherent way, and I believe it is accessible to non-specialists, provided some minimal background in projective geometry. As far as I could check, the claims are supported by the plentiful references, and they give a good overview of the topic, its history, connections to various topics in mathematics, and modern perspectives.

As a general remark, I think the special property of the map T on the spaces of pentagons and hexagons, stated in Section &quot;Periodic orbits on the moduli space&quot;, could be stated earlier in the paper, possibly in an informal way. They are quite striking and, in my opinion, motivate the study of the generic transformation.

Here are a few minor remarks:
- several references to pictures use the phrase &quot;on Figure...&quot;, I believe &quot;in Figure...&quot; is more common.
- &quot;its interpretation as a cluster algebra&quot; -&gt; maybe &quot;in terms of a cluster algebra&quot;, or something similar, would be more precise.
- On reference [2] by Gekhtman and Izosimov, &quot;Integrable Systems and Cluster Algebras&quot;, the link to sciencedirect in &quot;Works cited&quot; doesn't seem to work when I click it. This might be on my side, but please check the URL.
- &quot;for generic polygons on the real projective plane&quot; -&gt; &quot;in&quot; the projective plane seems more common?
- &quot;by taking lines and intersections of them&quot; sound a bit weird to me (but I'm not a native speaker so maybe it's okay)
- maybe at the beginning of Section &quot;Coordinates for the moduli space&quot;, announce that these will allow for nice expressions of the map T in those coordinates (as it is done in the following section).
- &quot;This generically makes a quasiperiodic motion.&quot; -&gt; &quot;makes&quot; sounds a bit vague to me, maybe &quot;induces a quasiperiodic motion on the corresponding torus&quot; or something.
- In the subsection &quot;Grassmannian polygon&quot;, second paragraph, I am a bit confused with notations and conventions. If we represent the vector space $v$ by a basis, and put the vectors in columns, we get a matrix of size $md \times m$ and not $m \times md$ right? And then, the action of $GL_{md}$ you are mentioning is simply multiplication on the left?
}} [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 02:30, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

{{response|1 = Hello and many thanks for the review. I implemented the changes following your remarks. There was indeed a confusion in the &quot;Grassmannian polygon&quot; section, which is now fixed. Thank you for your vigilance. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 13:01, 16 June 2026 (UTC)}}

== Peer review 3 ==

{{review
 |reviewer   =Richard Evan Schwartz
 |Q          =Q3893370
 |affiliation=Brown University
 |link       =
 |date       = 15 June 2026
 |text       =
This article is an update of the wikipedia page for the pentagram map, which I largely wrote myself. (I wrote almost the entire thing because what had been there initially was not very good.)  I think that JB did an excellent job updating the pentagram map page.  The article hits the main points : classical geometric results, Arnold-Liouville integrability, algebro-geometric integrability, Lax Pairs, connections to cluster algebras, Glick's result about the collapse point, and various generalizations.  
}} [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 20:37, 15 June 2026 (UTC)

{{response|1 = Hello and thank you for the review. Indeed, you made a massive contribution to the Wikipedia article, as it can be seen by comparing this two versions: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentagram%20map&amp;oldid=436156794 before] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentagram%20map&amp;oldid=438579263 after]. Of course, as stated in the [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|guidelines of the journal]], [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/articleinfo/en.wikipedia.org/Pentagram%20map Wikipedia contributors] are also credited. My contribution to reshape it to the standards of the Wikijournal of Science can be seen [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentagram_map&amp;diff=1359956775&amp;oldid=1317663617 here]. [[User:Regliste|Regliste]] ([[User talk:Regliste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Regliste|contribs]]) 14:17, 16 June 2026 (UTC)}}</text>
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    <title>User:Atcovi/WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka/Future Outlook</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-22T18:18:07Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <text bytes="4594" sha1="bx7ywbtcbtlhgom0sudte962ybuy7sw" xml:space="preserve">''&lt;small&gt;Will be moved to [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka]] - I think the page is too long, so it's making editing it burdensome.&lt;/small&gt;'' 

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4). Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7). A drafted mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, an agreement has not been reached for the legislation to be enacted.  

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of patient admissions for mental healthcare and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as facilities and specialized clinicians for both groups are scarce in the country&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

''Criticism of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956'' {{Done}}'':''

&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expansion of services for women facing domestic violence ===
&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt; (last paragraph before 4.2; see discussion + conclusion as well)


''so what?'' [finisher] - [already done by the last paragraph] 

[[Category:Atcovi's Work]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4520" sha1="rvccafrzn5kxks2egpyz2k8u9nt9c8n" xml:space="preserve">''&lt;small&gt;Will be moved to [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka]] - I think the page is too long, so it's making editing it burdensome.&lt;/small&gt;'' 

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4). Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7). A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been offically approved.  

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

''Criticism of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956'' {{Done}}'':''

&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hapangama|first=Aruni|last2=Mendis|first2=Jayan|last3=Kuruppuarachchi|first3=K. a. L. A.|date=2023-02|title=Why are we still living in the past? Sri Lanka needs urgent and timely reforms of its archaic mental health laws|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4|journal=BJPsych International|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=4–6|doi=10.1192/bji.2022.26|issn=2056-4740|pmc=9909436|pmid=36812028}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Expansion of services for women facing domestic violence ===
&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt; (last paragraph before 4.2; see discussion + conclusion as well)


''so what?'' [finisher] - [already done by the last paragraph] 

[[Category:Atcovi's Work]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816467</id>
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        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <text bytes="3615" sha1="i5bdzumvpuofqalg63zpvda5ogepf40" xml:space="preserve">''&lt;small&gt;Will be moved to [[WikiJournal Preprints/Mental health in Sri Lanka]] - I think the page is too long, so it's making editing it burdensome.&lt;/small&gt;'' 

== Future Outlook ==
Despite significant changes to the mental health environment in Sri Lanka, the current legal framework shaping mental health in the country has not been updated since 1956. A Cambridge University Press article detailed many limitations of the Mental Disease Ordinance of 1956, including discrepancies between the legal provisions of involuntary admissions and modern practices, potential exposure to trauma through extra-legal detentions of the mentally ill, and an absence of legal guidelines addressing the restraint of violent patients (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-international/article/why-are-we-still-living-in-the-past-sri-lanka-needs-urgent-and-timely-reforms-of-its-archaic-mental-health-laws/B18B03DC962CC6F09BC6D7877E390EE4). Participants from Sri Lanka reported in a comparative legislative questionnaire that they felt the mental health laws were &quot;outdated&quot; and descriptions of clinical roles remained ambiguous (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7). A draft mental health legislation from 2007 includes provisions for human rights, but due to &quot;bureaucratic processes&quot; and a &quot;lack of consensus&quot;, the draft has not been offically approved.  

These limitations pose challenges to the standardization of mental healthcare admissions and may impact the rights of detained patients. Detained patients may have their human rights violated due to a lack of an up-to-date legal framework, thereby impeding the identification of such violations. Additionally, with the lack of clarity on clinical roles, clinical responsibilities may not be routinely recognized and observed, leading to role confusion and potential legal ramifications&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dey|first=Sangeeta|last2=Mellsop|first2=Graham|last3=Diesfeld|first3=Kate|last4=Dharmawardene|first4=Vajira|last5=Mendis|first5=Susitha|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Sreemanti|last7=Deb|first7=Aniruddha|last8=Huq|first8=Nafisa|last9=Ahmed|first9=Helal Uddin|date=2019-10-24|title=Comparing legislation for involuntary admission and treatment of mental illness in four South Asian countries|url=https://ijmhs.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=13|issue=1|pages=67|doi=10.1186/s13033-019-0322-7|issn=1752-4458|pmc=6813093|pmid=31666805}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lastly, current efforts should increase beyond just addressing poverty-centered matters, but also expand efforts to domestic violence victims and children with disabilities, as shelters and specialized services are limited&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Augustyniak|first=Nadia|date=2025-06-01|title=Public mental healthcare and economic vulnerability in Sri Lanka|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666560324000926|journal=SSM - Mental Health|volume=7|pages=100387|doi=10.1016/j.ssmmh.2024.100387|issn=2666-5603}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Stagnation in policy development leaves Sri Lanka without a practical, up-to-date, and comprehensive mental health legislation, which could put both clinicians and patients at risk. Future reforms should include clarification on the treatment and detention process of involuntary admissions of patients and a clear delineation of clinical roles and their responsibilities. Without the necessary reforms to advance Sri Lankan mental health legislation, clinicians and vulnerable patients may suffer from a lack of comprehensive oversight. 

[[Category:Atcovi's Work]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of Cannibalism in China</title>
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      <comment>/* Southern and Northern Dynasties */ Minor translation edit on Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs</comment>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major natural famines, there are no explicit records of cannibalism resulting from &quot;natural&quot; disasters during this specific period. 

However, historians often note that the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias on military and political events over lower-class sufferings.

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
##: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
#: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from cautery sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from blistions caused by [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]], and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
#   590年: 时江南州县又论言欲徙之入关，远近惊骇。饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。（《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》㉕*）
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：（杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。（《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。（《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）中期：六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   613年: 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。（《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》㉕*）
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major natural famines, there are no explicit records of cannibalism resulting from &quot;natural&quot; disasters during this specific period. 

However, historians often note that the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias on military and political events over lower-class sufferings.

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
##: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
#: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
#   590年: 时江南州县又论言欲徙之入关，远近惊骇。饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。（《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》㉕*）
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：（杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。（《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。（《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）中期：六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   613年: 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。（《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》㉕*）
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major famines, there are no explicit official records of cannibalism resulting from natural disasters during this specific period. However, the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias of official records on military and political events over lower-class sufferings. 

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
##: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
#: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
#   590年: 时江南州县又论言欲徙之入关，远近惊骇。饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。（《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》㉕*）
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：（杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。（《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋文帝开皇年间（581-600年）：郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。（《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。（《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）中期：六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   613年: 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。（《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》㉕*）
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major famines, there are no explicit official records of cannibalism resulting from natural disasters during this specific period. However, the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias of official records on military and political events over lower-class sufferings. 

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
##: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
#: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
# 590 CE: Rebellion of Wu Shihua, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Wu Shihua of Raozhou raised an army in rebellion; he sliced the county magistrate into pieces and ate his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 63 &quot;Biographies, 51: Zhou Huida et al.&quot; (《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》)
# 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' (Yang Wutong) and Zhou Fashang campaigned against the rebellious Liao of Jiazhou. The rebels, knowing his army was isolated, arrived in full force. Wutong fought for hundreds of li but was blocked on all sides. Wutong challenged them on horseback, fell from his mount, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' （杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 73 &quot;Biographies, 61: Liang Shiyan et al.&quot; (《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》)
## 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' (Yang) Wutong engaged in battle on light cavalry, fell from his horse, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
##: '''Original:''' （杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 18: Daxixian Changru&quot; (《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》)
# 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messenger Daxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 87 &quot;Biographies, 75: Cruel Officials&quot; (《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》)
## 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messengerDaxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 74 &quot;Biographies, 39: Cruel Officials&quot; (《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》)
# 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods; people ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
#: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 12 &quot;Imperial Annals of Sui, Part 2&quot; (《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》)
## 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods. People ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
##: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Annals, 4: Emperor Yang, Part 2&quot; (《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》)
# 613 CE: Execution of Yang Xuangan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English:''' When Yang Xuangan rebelled, the Emperor (Yang Guang) executed him and extended the punishment to his nine branches of kindred. The most severe punishments involved dismemberment [and/or] beheaded with their skulls displayed in public. He ordered the high officials and those below them to carve and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major famines, there are no explicit official records of cannibalism resulting from natural disasters during this specific period. However, the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias of official records on military and political events over lower-class sufferings. 

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]()''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
# 590 CE: Rebellion of Wu Shihua, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Wu Shihua of Raozhou raised an army in rebellion; he sliced the county magistrate into pieces and ate his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 63 &quot;Biographies, 51: Zhou Huida et al.&quot; (《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》)
# 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' (Yang Wutong) and Zhou Fashang campaigned against the rebellious Liao of Jiazhou. The rebels, knowing his army was isolated, arrived in full force. Wutong fought for hundreds of li but was blocked on all sides. Wutong challenged them on horseback, fell from his mount, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' （杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 73 &quot;Biographies, 61: Liang Shiyan et al.&quot; (《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》)
## 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' (Yang) Wutong engaged in battle on light cavalry, fell from his horse, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
##: '''Original:''' （杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 18: Daxixian Changru&quot; (《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》)
# 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messenger Daxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 87 &quot;Biographies, 75: Cruel Officials&quot; (《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》)
## 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messengerDaxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 74 &quot;Biographies, 39: Cruel Officials&quot; (《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》)
# 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods; people ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
#: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 12 &quot;Imperial Annals of Sui, Part 2&quot; (《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》)
## 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods. People ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
##: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Annals, 4: Emperor Yang, Part 2&quot; (《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》)
# 613 CE: Execution of Yang Xuangan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English:''' When Yang Xuangan rebelled, the Emperor (Yang Guang) executed him and extended the punishment to his nine branches of kindred. The most severe punishments involved dismemberment [and/or] beheaded with their skulls displayed in public. He ordered the high officials and those below them to carve and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
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Among all major civilizations worldwide, China has the most recorded instances of cannibalism.&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社, 1994, &quot;中国封建时代的有关（食人习俗的）文字记载是极为丰富的。可以说，中国封建时代的食人习俗证据远比其他时代或其他国家为多&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; This entry documented 388 cannibalism cases recorded in 530 instances from the ''Twenty-Five Histories'' ([[w:Twenty-Four Histories|Twenty-Four Histories]] and [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]), consistent with prior research &lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第153-154页。&lt;/ref&gt;. According to another study, the [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], a comprehensive Chinese encyclopedic work, recorded 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting own flesh to cure parents' illness&lt;ref name=鄭麒來統計/&gt;.

Several factors are generally considered responsible for this prevalence. 

* China experienced more famines than any other major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;邓拓，《中国救荒史》，1937年，“我国灾荒之多，世界罕有，就文献可考的记载来看，从公元前十八世纪，直到公元二十世纪的今日，将近四千年间，几于无年无灾，也几乎无年无荒。西欧学者甚至称我国为‘饥荒的国度’（The Land of Famine)。” &lt;/ref&gt; 
* China experienced the most frequent and intense conflicts among major civilizations.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》，“中国秦以后历代王朝的寿命不但比‘封建’时代的周‘王朝’和欧洲、日本的宗主王系（不是dynasty）短很多，其‘改朝换代’的巨大破坏性更几乎是人类历史上独有的。……世界史上别的民族有遭到外来者屠杀而种族灭绝的，有毁灭于庞贝式的自然灾变的，但像中国这样残忍的自相残杀确实难找他例。”&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; 福山《政治秩序的起源》，2014年，广西师范大学出版社，第7章，“与其他军事化社会相比，周朝的中国异常残暴。有个估计，秦国成功动员了其总人口的8%到20%，而古罗马共和国的仅1%，希腊提洛同盟的仅5.2%，欧洲早期现代则更低”&lt;/ref&gt; 
* Specific cultural beliefs developed in China, including:
** Rationalizing cannibalism as a means of expressing animosity&lt;ref&gt;《左传·襄公二十一年》，“然二子者，譬如禽兽，臣食其肉而寝处其皮矣”；岳飞，《满江红》，“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”；《三国演义》、《水浒传》多处有吃仇人肉的描写；等等&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Attributing medicinal properties to human flesh &lt;ref&gt;唐，陈藏器，《本草拾遗》；明，李时珍，《本草纲目》&lt;/ref&gt;.
** Viewing the practice of cutting own flesh to treat elder relatives as a noble demonstration of filial piety&lt;ref&gt; 《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》：“太祖、太宗以来，……刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；”&lt;/ref&gt;
* China established a comprehensive official historical record system early on, which remained functional even during periods of significant social chaos, preserving extensive historical documentation.

==Statistics==

Key-Ray Chong categorized records of cannibalism within the Twenty-Five Histories, based on their causes.&lt;ref name=&quot;鄭麒來統計&quot; /&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Historical Records!!Subtotal!!Wartime Famine!!Wartime Hatred!!Natural Disasters!!Peace-time Hatred!!Loyalty!!Filial Piety!!Taste!!Other
|-
| [[:w:Shiji|Records of the Grand Historian(''Shiji'')]]||19||6||11	|| ||2|| || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]] ||25||11||1||13|| || || || ||
|-
| [[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]||26||15|| ||11 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Records of the Three Kingdoms|Records of the Three Kingdoms]]||7||4|| ||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]||32||16||1||13||2 ||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Wei|Book of Wei]]||8||6||1||1	||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Southern Dynasties|History of the Southern Dynasties]]||18||12||3||3 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of the Northern Dynasties|History of the Northern Dynasties]]||6||3||3 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]]||2||2 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]]||2||1||1 ||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]]||9||5||2||2 ||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]]||1||1 ||||||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Book of Sui|Book of Sui]]||8||2||3||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:Historical Records of the Five Dynasties|Historical Records of the Five Dynasties]]||15||10||4|| || || ||1||||
|-
| [[:w:Old History of the Five Dynasties|Old History of the Five Dynasties]]||5||3||1||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Jin|History of Jin]]||3||||||3||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Liao|History of Liao]]||1||||||1||||||||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Yuan|History of Yuan]]||46||5||1||27||||||13||||
|-
| [[:w:History of Song (book)|History of Song]]||43||4||4||14||||||20||1	||
|-
| [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]]||45||5||||22||||||17	||1||
|-
| [[w:Draft History of Qing|Draft History of Qing]]||76||3||||15	||||||58||||
|-
!Total!!397!!114!!36!!132!!4!!0!!109!!2	!!

|}

However, this statistics is incomplete and partially incorrect. It omitted [[:w:Book of Zhou|Book of Zhou]], [[:w:Book of Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], [[:w:Old Book of Tang|Old Book of Tang]], [[:w:New Book of Tang|New Book of Tang]] originally included in the ''Twenty-Five Histories,'' and failed to remove duplicated records in [[:w:History of Ming|History of Ming]].

In addition to previous research, Key-Ray Chong compiled 653 cases of filial piety act involving cutting one's own flesh to cure relatives in [[w:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China|Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China]], of which 99% involved women, and 56% of these cases involved daughters-in-law cutting their own flesh for their mothers-in-law. Although this polarization may be the result of intentional selection bias, as both male and female cases of flesh-cutting to cure relatives are well documented in the ''Twenty-Five Histories.'' 

Key-Ray Chong concluded:&lt;ref&gt; [美]郑麒来（Key Ray Chong）《中国古代的食人：人吃人行为透视》，中国社会科学出版社，1994年版，第5-8页。&lt;/ref&gt;

{{Blockquote|text=Chinese practice of survival cannibalism does not significantly differ from that of other cultures; However, &quot;learned cannibalism''(習得性食人)''&quot; in China earned unique characteristics, particularly in its historical prevalence and specific motivations.

Unlike many other regions, where religion played a central role in cannibalistic rituals, Chinese practices were largely secular, often driven by two emotional extremes: '''Virtue and Affection''', including acts performed out of loyalty (尽忠), filial piety (尽孝), or deep love. '''Vengeance and Hatred''', on the other hand, are acts performed for revenge (報仇), to wash away shames (雪恥), or out of pure animosity. To give an example, During wartimes, cannibalism was frequently practiced as a symbolic and literal act of consuming the enemy, rooted in deep-seated hatred.

It is worth noting that ''learned cannibalism'' was also associated with '''culinary appreciation''' or '''medicinal therapy''' among the upper classes. Human flesh was perceived as both a food source and a potent medicine, especially valued for enhancing sexual function. For example, Li Shizhen's [[:w:Compendium of Materia Medica|Compendium of Materia Medica]] listed 35 human organs or substances used for medicinal purposes.}}
==Xia, Zhou and Shang Dynasty==
Note that early Chinese history often blends myth with oral tradition. While these records lack contemporary archeological evidence, they are also historically significant as they reflect how later generations conceptualized the origins of social norms including cannibalism.

# c. 1940 BCE, Xia Dynasty
#: '''English:''' He [Houyi] relied on his archery and neglected civil affairs... The family retainers killed and boiled him, and fed him to his sons. His sons could not bear to eat him and died at city gate.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-cn|「……（后羿）恃其射也，不修民事而淫於原獸，棄武羅、伯因、熊髡、圉而用寒浞。……羿猶不悛，將歸自田，家眾殺而亨之。以食其子；其子不忍食諸，死於窮門。」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''Zuo Zhuan'', Chapter of Duke Xiang (《左傳·襄公》)
#  Reign of [[:w:King Weng of Zhou|King Weng of Zhou]], c.1112-1050 BCE 
#: '''English:'''　According to ''Diwang Shiji''(The Century of Emperors), [King] Zhou imprisoned King Wen(of Zhou Dynasty). King Wen's eldest son, Boyi Kao, was serving as a hostage in Yin and acted as a charioteer for King Zhou. King Zhou boiled [Boyi Kao] to make a meat soup and presented it to King Wen, saying: &quot;''A true sage should not eat a soup made of his own son.''&quot; 
#: King Wen ate it. King Zhou then remarked, &quot;Who was it said the Earl of the West (King Wen) was a sage? He ate a soup made of his own son without even realizing it.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 「《帝王世紀》云，（紂）囚文王，文王之長子曰伯邑考，質於殷，為紂御。紂烹為羮，賜文王曰：聖人當不食其子羮。文王食之，紂曰，誰謂西伯聖者，食其子羮尚不知也。」
#: '''Source:''' Justice in History, book 3, records of Yin (《史記正義·卷三·殷本紀》)
#: '''Note:''' The ''Century of Emperors''(《帝王世紀》) cited above was written in [[:w:Jing Dynasty|Jin Period]], and the original is now lost.

== Spring and Autumn / Warring States Periods ==

The [[:w:Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[:w:Warring States period|Warring States]] periods (approx. 770–221 BC) marked a significant era where cannibalism was documented under various social and political motivations. Famous Chinese idioms such as &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; (''易子而食'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) and &quot;eating the flesh and sleeping on the skin&quot; (''食肉寝皮'', from [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]) both originated during this time.

Cases of cannibalism during this period can be categorized into four dominant motivations.

# '''Warfare and Siege Famines:''' The most frequent cause. During prolonged sieges, resources were so depleted that citizens resorted to &quot;exchanging children to eat&quot; to avoid consuming their own offspring.
# '''Political motivation:''' A famous case is Yi Ya (易牙), who steamed his own son to serve as a delicacy to Duke Huan of Qi to prove his absolute loyalty.
# '''Intimidation:''' Cannibalism was used as a tool of terror or vengeance. Examples include the Di people killing and eating Duke Yi of Wei(''狄人殺食衛懿公''), or the Ruler of Zhongshan boiling the son of the his own general, Yue Yang(''中山君烹樂羊子''), to test his loyalty.
# '''Cultural customs:''' Early records mention peripheral groups, such as the &quot;People-Eating Kingdom&quot; (啖人國), though these may be the result of Han-centric view of &quot;barbaric&quot; outsiders.

While the [[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]] records at least 15 major famines, there are no explicit official records of cannibalism resulting from natural disasters during this specific period. However, the absence of such records does not necessarily prove the absence of the practice; rather, it may reflect the selective focus bias of official records on military and political events over lower-class sufferings. 

=== Before Warring State period ===

# The practice of &quot;Yi Di&quot; (''宜弟'')
#: '''English''': In the ancient past, there was a kingdom called Kaishu to the east of Yue. When a first-born son was born, they would dismember and eat him. The practice is called &quot;Yi Di&quot; (meaning &quot;benefiting the younger brothers&quot;).
#: '''Original:''' 昔者越之東有輆沭之國者，其長子生，則解而食之，謂之「宜弟」。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Moderation in Funerals&quot; (《墨子·節葬下》)
# Critique of &quot;Yi Di&quot;, by Mozi
#: '''English:''' Luyang Wenjun said to Mozi: &quot;South of Chu, there is a kingdom of man-eaters called Qiao. When a first-born son is born, they butcher and eat him, calling it 'Yi Di.' If the meat is flavorful, they present it to their ruler, who rewards the father. Is this not a detestable custom?&quot; 
#: Mozi replied: &quot;Even the customs of the Central Kingdoms are similar. How is killing a father and rewarding his son any different from eating a son and rewarding his father? If we do not govern by Benevolence and Righteousness, how can we criticize the barbarians for eating their sons?&quot;
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|魯陽文君語子墨子曰：「楚之南有啖人之國者橋，其國之長子生，則鮮而食之，謂之宜弟。美，則以遺其君，君喜則賞其父。豈不惡俗哉？」子墨子曰：「雖中國之俗，亦猶是也。殺其父而賞其子，何以異食其子而賞其父者哉？苟不用仁義，何以非夷人食其子也？」}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Mozi|Mozi(Book)]]'', &quot;Lu Wen&quot; (《墨子·魯問》)
# Ethnographic Records of the Wuhu
#: '''English:''' To the west of the Nanman (Southern Barbarians) lies the Kingdom of Man-eaters, named [[:w:Cochin|Cochin]](Crossed rivers). There, man and woman bath in the same river, thus the name.
#: It is their custom to always dismember and eat the first-born son, calling it &quot;Yi Di.&quot; If the taste is delicious, they offer it to their ruler, who in turn rewards the father. Furthermore, if a man marries a beautiful wife, he offer her to his elder brother. These people are known today as the Wuhu.
#: '''Original:''' {{lang|zh-tw|其西有啖人國，生首子輒解而食之，謂之宜弟。味旨，則以遺其君，君喜而賞其父。取妻美，則讓其兄。今烏滸人是也。}}
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Book of the Later Han]]'', &quot;On the Southern and Southwestern Barbarians&quot; (《後漢書·南蠻西南夷列傳》)

=== In Warring State period ===
# During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
#: '''English''': During the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, Yi Ya served the Duke as his personal chef. The Duke once said that he had never tasted steamed infant. Upon hearing this, Yi Ya steamed his own firstborn son and presented the dish to the Duke. Human nature is such that one loves one's own children; yet he who does not love his own son. Then, what he would do to his own lord?
#: '''Original:''' 夫易牙以调和事（齐桓）公，公曰&quot;惟蒸婴儿之未尝&quot;，于是蒸其首子而献之公。人情非不爱其子也，于子之不爱，将何有于公？
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', &quot;Minor Exaltation&quot; (《管子·小称》)
## Alternate records of &quot;Yi Ya&quot;, During reigns of Duke Huan of Qi (''齊桓公'', r. 685–643 BCE)
##: '''English''': Duke Huan of Qi was fond of rare delicacies, and so Yi Ya steamed his own son's head and presented it to him.
##: '''Original:''' 齐桓公好味，易牙蒸其子首而进之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Han Feizi|Han Feizi]]'', &quot;The Two Handles&quot; (《韓非子·二柄·難一》)
# 660 BCE: The Death and Consumption of Duke Yi of Wei (''衛懿公'')
#: '''English''': The Di people arrived and overtook Duke Yi of Wei at Rongze, where they killed him. They consumed all of his flesh, only his liver was untouched.
#: '''Original:''' 狄人至，及（卫）懿公于荣泽，杀之，尽食其肉，独舍其肝。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Lüshi Chunqiu|Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (《吕氏春秋》)
# 594 BCE: The Siege of Song
#: '''English''': The people of Song, fearing for their lives, sent Hua Yuan on a secret night mission into the Chu encampment. He climbed into the bed of Zi Fan and roused him, saying: &quot;Our lord has sent me, Yuan, to convey our dire situation: our city is reduced to trading children for food and splitting bones for fuel. Even so, a covenant made beneath the city walls — one that would mean the ruin of our state — we cannot accept. Withdraw thirty li (''unit of length, approx. 3 kilometers long)'' from us, and we will obey every command.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 宋人惧，使华元夜入楚师，登子反之床，起之曰：&quot;寡君使元以病告，曰：'敝邑易子而食，析骸以爨。虽然，城下之盟，有以国毙，不能从也。去我三十里，唯命是听。'&quot;
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zuo Zhuan|Zuo Zhuan]]'', &quot;The Fifteenth Year of Duke Xuan&quot; (《左傳·宣公十五年》)
## 594 BCE: The Siege of Song  (alternate account)
##: '''English''': In the twentieth year of his reign, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Song in retaliation for the killing of a Chu envoy. After a siege of five months, the food supply within the city was completely exhausted. The inhabitants resorted to trading children for food and burning bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song went out to truthfully convey the situation to King Zhuang. The King said: &quot;Truly a man of virtue!&quot; and thereupon withdrew his forces.
##: '''Original:''' 二十年，（楚）围宋，以杀楚使也。围宋五月，城中食尽，易子而食，析骨而炊。宋华元出告以情。庄王曰：&quot;君子哉！&quot;遂罢兵去。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Hereditary Houses of Chu, Vol. 40&quot; (《史記·卷四十·楚世家第十》)
# c. 500 BCE: Zhi the Robber (''盜跖'')
#: '''English''': Confucius and Liuxia Ji were friends; Liuxia Ji's younger brother was named Zhi the Robber. Zhi the Robber commanded a following of nine thousand men, swept through the empire with impunity, plundering the various lords. 
#: He stormed into dwellings, stole cattle and horses, and abducted women. Driven by greed, he cast aside all bonds of kinship, disregarding his parents and siblings, and made no offerings to his ancestors.
#: Wherever his forces passed, large states fortified their walls and small states withdrew into strongholds, and all the people suffered greatly. [...] At that time, Zhi the Robber was resting his men on the southern slope of Mount Tai, mincing human livers and eating them.
#: '''Original:''' 孔子与柳下季为友，柳下季之弟名曰盗跖。盗跖从卒九千人，横行天下，侵暴诸侯；穴室枢户，驱人牛马，取人妇女；贪得忘亲，不顾父母兄弟，不祭先祖。所过之邑，大国守城，小国入保，万民苦之。……盗跖乃方休卒徒太山之阳，脍人肝而餔之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', &quot;Robber Zhi&quot; (《莊子·盜跖》)
# 409 BCE: Yue Yang Drinks His Son's Broth
#: '''English''': Yue Yang served as a general of Wei and led an attack on Zhongshan. His son was residing in Zhongshan at the time, and the ruler of Zhongshan had the son boiled and sent the resulting broth to Yue Yang. Yue Yang sat beneath his campaign tent and drank it, finishing the entire cup. 
#: Marquis Wen of Wei said to his advisor Du Shize: &quot;Yue Yang, for my sake, ate the flesh of his own son.&quot; Du replied: &quot;One who can eat his own son's flesh. Who would he not eat?&quot; After Yue Yang had pacified Zhongshan, Marquis Wen rewarded his achievement but harbored doubts about his character.
#: '''Original:''' 乐羊为魏将而攻中山。其子在中山，中山之君烹其子而遗之羹，乐羊坐于幕下而啜之，尽一杯。文侯谓睹师赞曰：&quot;乐羊以我之故，食其子之肉。&quot;赞对曰：&quot;其子之肉尚食之，其谁不食？&quot;乐羊既罢中山，文侯赏其功而疑其心。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zhanguo Ce|Zhanguo Ce]]'', &quot;Stratagems of Wei I, Vol. 22&quot; (《戰國策·卷二十二·魏策一》)
# 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang ''(晉陽之戰'')
#: '''English''': The three states of Zhi, Wei, and Han besieged Jinyang for over a year, and then diverted the Fen River to flood the city. The floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls. Within the city, cauldrons were suspended over fires for cooking, inhabitants exchanged children to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 三国（智魏韩）攻晋阳，岁馀，引汾水灌其城，城不浸者三版。城中悬釜而炊，易子而食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Clan of Zhao, Vol. 43&quot; (《史記·卷四十三·趙世家第十三》)
## 403 BCE: The Siege of Jinyang (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The three clans of Zhi, Wei, and Han encircled the people of Zhao at Jinyang and flooded the city; the floodwaters rose to within three planks' breadth of the top of the walls, and the inhabitants resorted to eating men and horses.
##: '''Original:''' 三家（智魏韩）以国人围（赵国晋阳）而灌之，城不浸者三版，人马相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 1 (《資治通鑑·卷一》)
# 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (''長平之戰'')
#: '''English''': By the ninth month, the Zhao soldiers had been without food for forty-six days, and in secret they began killing and ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 至九月，赵卒不得食四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Bai Qi and Wang Jian, Vol. 73&quot; (《史記·卷七十三·白起王翦列傳第十三》)
## 260 BCE: The Battle of Changping (alternate record)
##: '''English''': The Zhao army was cut off from food for forty-six days, during which they secretly killed and ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赵军食绝四十六日，皆内阴相杀食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 5 (《資治通鑑·卷五》)
# 257 BCE: Li Tong(''李同'')'s Appeal at the Siege of Handan
#: '''English''': Li Tong said: &quot;The people of Handan are burning bones for fuel and trading children for food. Their plight could not be more desperate. Yet in your household, hundreds of concubines and maids are clothed in fine silk, with surplus grain and meat to spare, while the common people cannot complete a garment of coarse cloth and cannot fill themselves even with dregs and husks.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 邯郸之民，炊骨易子而食，可谓急矣，而君之後宫以百数，婢妾被绮縠，馀粱肉，而民褐衣不完，糟糠不厌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lord Pingyuan and Yu Qing, Vol. 76&quot; (《史記·卷七十六·平原君虞卿列傳第十六》)
# c. 250 BCE: The Siege of Liaocheng
#: '''English''': Qi's general Tian Dan besieged Liaocheng for over a year, with heavy casualties among his troops, yet the city did not fall. Lu Zhonglian then composed a letter, tied it to an arrow, and shot it into the city, addressed to the Yan commander. The letter read: &quot;[...] Now you hold the exhausted people of Liaocheng against the full force of Qi's army — this is the defensive resolve of Mozi. Your men eat others and burn their bones for fuel, yet none harbor thoughts of surrender — this is the military discipline of Sun Bin. Your name shall be known throughout the realm.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 齐田单攻聊城岁馀，士卒多死而聊城不下。鲁连乃为书，约之矢以射城中，遗燕将。书曰：……今公又以敝聊之民距全齐之兵，是墨翟之守也。食人炊骨，士无反外之心，是孙膑之兵也。能见於天下。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Records of the Great Historian(Shiji)]]'', &quot;Biographies of Lu Zhonglian and Zou Yang, Vol. 83&quot; (《史記·卷八十三·魯仲連鄒陽列傳第二十三》)

==Han Dynasty==
The wars between the Qin and Han dynasties caused large-scale famine and population decline across China, a pattern that would recur with nearly every subsequent dynastic transition.

# Early Han Dynasty: Famine and Cannibalism Following the Collapse of Qin
#: '''English''': At the founding of the Han dynasty, inheriting the devastation left by Qin, the various lords rose simultaneously in conflict. The people abandoned their livelihoods, and a great famine ensued. Price of one shi of rice reached five thousand coins; people ate each other, more than half the population perished. Emperor Gaozu then issued an order permitting the people to sell their children, and directed the starving to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兴，接秦之敝，诸侯并起，民失作业而大饥馑。凡米石五千，人相食，死者过半。高祖乃令民得卖子，就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other. The people were directed to seek food in Shu and Han.
#: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。令民就食蜀、汉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Gao, Vol. 1a&quot; (《漢書·卷一上·高帝紀第一上》)
## 205 BCE: Great Famine in Guanzhong, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': A great famine struck Guanzhong; the price of one hu of rice reached ten thousand coins, and people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关中大饥，米斛万钱，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 9 (《資治通鑑·卷九》)
# 196 BCE: Minced flesh of Peng Yue, in ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': In the eleventh year, Empress Gao put to death the Marquis of Huaiyin; (Ying) Bu grew fearful at heart. In summer, Han executed Liang Wang Peng Yue, minced his flesh into paste, and sent portions of his flesh to all the lords. 
#:When it reached Huainan, the King of Huainan was out hunting; upon beholding the paste, he trembled greatly, and secretly ordered men to muster troops, watching for signs of trouble in the neighboring commanderies.
#: '''Original:''' 十一年，高后诛淮阴侯，布因心恐。夏，汉诛梁王彭越，醢之，盛其醢遍赐诸侯。至淮南，淮南王方猎，见醢，因大恐，阴令人部聚兵，候伺旁郡警急。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Records of the Grand Historian|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biography of Qing Bu&quot; (《史记·卷九十一·黥布列传第十三》)
# 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the third spring of that year, the Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春，河水溢于平原，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
## 138 BCE: Flood and Famine on the Yellow River Plain, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': The Yellow River overflowed onto the Pingyuan plain. Great famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 河水溢于平原。大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': Ji An returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses. it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henan granaries and relieve the destitute people. I now request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him.
#: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧也。臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河南仓粟以振贫民。臣请归节，伏矫制之罪。&quot;上贤而释之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Biographies of Ji An and Zheng Dangshi, Vol. 120&quot; (《史記·卷一百二十·汲鄭列傳第六十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report on Famine in Henei, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
##: '''English''': [Ji An] returned and reported: &quot;A household fire has spread to neighboring houses — it is not worth undue concern. On my way, I passed through Henei, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another. I therefore took it upon myself, acting on temporary authority, to use the imperial tally to open the Henei granaries and relieve the destitute people. I request to return the tally and submit to punishment for acting beyond my authority.&quot; The Emperor, recognizing his virtue, pardoned him and transferred him to serve as Prefect of Xingyang.
##: '''Original:''' 还报曰：&quot;家人失火，屋比延烧，不足忧。臣过河内，河内贫人伤水旱万余家，或父子相食，臣谨以便宜，持节发河内仓粟以振贫民。请归节，伏矫制罚。&quot;上贤而释之，迁为荥阳令。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhang, Feng, Ji, and Zheng, Vol. 50&quot; (《漢書·卷五十·張馮汲鄭傳第二十》)
## 135 BCE: Ji An's Report, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': On my way, I passed through Henan, where more than ten thousand families among the poor had been afflicted by flood and drought; in some cases, fathers and sons were eating one another.
##: '''Original:''' 臣过河南，河南贫人伤水旱万馀家，或父子相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 17 (《資治通鑑·卷十七》)
# 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong, ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning one to two thousand li, people resorted to eating one another.
#: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，及岁不登数年，人或相食，方一二千里。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Shiji|Shiji]]'', &quot;Treatise on Equalization, Vol. 30&quot; (《史記·卷三十·平準書第八》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in Shandong(the East), ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the eastern provinces had suffered from Yellow River floods, and for several consecutive years the harvests had failed. In some places, spanning two to three thousand li, people resorted to eating one another. The Emperor, moved by compassion, ordered the famine victims to travel and seek food in the Yangtze and Huai River regions, and those who wished to remain were permitted to settle there. Imperial envoys with carriages and canopies followed one another on the roads to escort them, and grain from Ba and Shu was dispatched to provide relief.
##: '''Original:''' 是时山东被河灾，乃岁不登数年，人或相食，方二三千里。天子怜之，令饥民得流就食江、淮间，欲留，留处。使者冠盖相属于道护之，下巴、蜀粟以赈焉。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the third month of the third Yuanding year, water froze; in the fourth month, snow fell. In more than ten commanderies east of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元鼎三年三月水冰，四月雨雪，关东十余郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on the Five Elements, Vol. 27&quot; (《漢書·卷二十七中之下·五行志第七中之下》)
## 114 BCE: Famine in the East, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': More than forty commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered famine, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东郡、国四十馀饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 20 (《資治通鑑·卷二十》)
# 113 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In summer, the fourth month, hail fell. In more than ten commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 夏四月，雨雹，关东郡国十余饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 6&quot; (《漢書·卷六·武帝紀第六》)
# 141–87 BCE: Critique of Emperor Wu's Reign, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': &quot;Though Emperor Wu had merit in driving back the four barbarians and expanding the realm, yet he slew great numbers of his men, exhausted the people's wealth, indulged in extravagance without measure. 
#: The realm was left hollow and depleted, the hundred folk scattered and adrift, half perished. Locusts rose in great swarms, scorching the earth for thousands of li; in some places people ate each other, and the stores have not recovered to this day. 
#: He bestowed no virtue nor grace upon the people, and ought not to have temple rites established in his honour.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 武帝虽有攘四夷广土斥境之功，然多杀士众，竭民财力，奢泰亡度，天下虚耗，百姓流离，物故者半。蝗虫大起，赤地数千里，或人民相食，畜积至今未复。亡德泽于民，不宜为立庙乐。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
# c. 104 BCE: Depletion of the Realm After Dong Zhongshu, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': After Zhongshu's death, expenditures grew ever greater, the realm was hollow and depleted, and once more people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 仲舒死后，功费愈甚，天下虚耗，人复相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods. Famine; in some places people ate each other. Neighboring commanderies were called upon to render aid in coin and grain.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，关东郡国十一大水，饥，或人相食，转旁郡钱、谷''(穀)''以相救。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Chuyuan under Emperor Yuan, [...] in the fifth month the Bohai Sea overflowed greatly. In the sixth month, Great Famine struck the east; many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初元元年，……其五月，勃海水大溢。六月，关东大饥，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Astronomy, Vol. 26&quot; (《漢書·卷二十六·天文志第六》)
## 48 BCE: Great Famine in Eastern Commanderies, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In autumn, the ninth month, eleven commanderies and kingdoms east of the passes suffered great floods and famine; in some places people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 秋，九月，关东郡、国十一大水，饥，或人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month, famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 六月，关东饥，齐地人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Yuan, Vol. 9&quot; (《漢書·卷九·元帝紀第九》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, great floods struck the realm; eleven eastern commanderies suffered most grievously. In the second year, famine struck the land of Qi; grain reached three hundred coins per shi, many among the people starved to death, and in Langye Commandery people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 元帝即位，天下大水，关东郡十一尤甚。二年，齐地饥，谷''(穀)''石三百余，民多饿死，琅邪郡人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](3)''
##: '''English''': The following year, in the second month, on the day wuwu, the earth shook. That summer, in the land of Liu, people ate each other. [...] Yi Feng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running, compounded by pestilence; the hundred folk are wan with hunger, and some have come to eat each other. The earth trembles repeatedly, the heavens are turbid, and the light of the sun grows dim.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 明年二月戊午，地震。其夏，刘地人相食。……（翼奉）上疏曰：……今东方连年饥馑，加之以疾疫，百姓菜色，或至相食。地比震动，天气溷浊，日光侵夺。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Sui, Liang, Xiahou, Jing, Yi and Li, Vol. 75&quot; (《漢書·卷七十五·眭兩夏侯京翼李傳第四十五》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Emperor Yuan first ascended the throne, he summoned Yu to serve as Remonstrant Counsellor and repeatedly sought his counsel on affairs of governance. At that time the harvests had failed and many commanderies were in distress. 
##: Yu exclaimed: &quot;Now the people die of Great Famine; the dead go unburied and are eaten by dogs and swine. People eat each other, whilst the horses in the imperial stables feed on grain and grow so fat and vigorous that they must be walked daily to work it off. Is this what it means for a sovereign, having received the Mandate of Heaven, to be father and mother to the people?&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元帝初即位，征禹為諫大夫，數虛己問以政事。是時，年歲不登，郡國多困，禹奏言：[……] 今民大飢而死，死又不葬，為犬豬食。人至相食，而廄馬食粟，苦其大肥，氣甚怒至，乃日步作之。王者受命於天，為民父母，固當若此乎！（
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wang, Gong, Liang Gong and Bao, Vol. 72&quot; (《漢書·卷七十二·王貢兩龔鮑傳第四十二》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](5)''
##: '''English''': Kuang Heng memorialized: &quot;The eastern lands have suffered famine for years running; the hundred folk are in want and distress, and some have come to eat each other. This hath all arisen from levies and taxes being too heavy, the burdens borne by the people being too great, and the officials failing in their duty to settle and succour them.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 匡）衡上疏曰：……今关东连年饥馑，百姓乏困，或至相食，此皆生于赋敛多，民所共者大，而吏安集之不称之效也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Kuang, Zhang, Kong and Ma, Vol. 81&quot; (《漢書·卷八十一·匡張孔馬傳第五十一》)
## 47 BCE: Famine in Qi, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Famine struck the east; in the land of Qi, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东饥，齐地人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 28 (《資治通鑑·卷二十八》)
# 17 BCE: Emperor Cheng's Edict Dismissing Xue Xuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': Emperor Cheng decreed the dismissal of Xue Xuan, saying: &quot;I, being unenlightened, have seen repeated ill omens; the harvests have failed year upon year, the granaries stand empty, the hundred folk suffer Great Famine, wandering and scattered upon the roads. Those who have perished of pestilence number in the tens of thousands; people eat each other, bandits rise on all sides, and the offices of governance lie neglected. This is owing to mine own want of virtue and the failings of mine own ministers.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 朕既不明，变异数见，岁比不登，仓廪空虚，百姓饥馑，流离道路，疾疫死者以万数，人至相食，盗贼并兴，群职旷废，是朕之不德而股肱不良也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biographies of Xue Xuan and Zhu Bo, Vol. 83&quot; (《漢書·卷八十三·薛宣朱博傳第五十三》)
# 15 BCE: Floods in Liang and Pingyuan, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the second year of Yongshi, the kingdoms of Liang and Pingyuan suffered floods in consecutive years; people ate each other. The regional inspectors, prefects and chancellors were held accountable and dismissed.
#: '''Original:''' 永始二年，梁国、平原郡比年伤水灾，人相食，刺史、守、相坐免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
# 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Tianfeng under Wang Mang, Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99b&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九中·王莽傳第六十九中》)
## 14 CE: Great Famine Along the Frontier, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the borderlands; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 缘边大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 37 (《資治通鑑·卷三十七》)
# 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](1)''
#: '''English''': In his final years, bandits rose in great numbers; armies were dispatched to suppress them, and their officers ran amok beyond the passes. In the northern borderlands and in the lands of Qing and Xu, people ate each other; east of Luoyang, grain reached two thousand coins per shi.
#: '''Original:''' 末年，盗贼群起，发军击之，将吏放纵于外。北边及青、徐地人相食，雒阳以东米石二千。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24a&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四上·食貨志第四上》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': [...] battle and slaughter, captivity by the four border peoples, criminal penalties, Great Famine, pestilence, and people eating each other had together reduced the households of the realm by half.
##: '''Original:''' 战斗死亡，缘边四夷所系虏，陷罪，饥疫，人相食，及莽未诛，而天下户口减半矣。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 24b&quot; (《漢書·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]](2)''
##: '''English''': In that month, the Red Eyebrows slew the Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是月，赤眉杀太师牺仲景尚。关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
## 22 CE: Collapse of Wang Mang's Realm, ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': East of the passes, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 关东人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 38 (《資治通鑑·卷三十八》)
# 23 CE: The Fate of Wang Mang's Corpse, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': Wang Mang's severed head was sent to Gengshi and hung in the market of Wan. The common folk vied to strike and beat it; some cut out his tongue and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 传（王）莽首诣更始，县宛市，百姓共提击之，或切食其舌。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': When Zhen Fu fell and Cen Peng was wounded, he fled back to Wan and held the city together with Yan Shuo. Han forces besieged them for several months; the city's provisions were exhausted and people ate each other. Peng and Shuo thereupon surrendered the city.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中粮尽，人相食，彭乃与说举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 23 CE: Siege of Wan — Cen Peng's Surrender, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': [...] Han forces besieged them for several months. People within the city ate each other; they thereupon surrendered.
#: '''Original:''' 汉兵攻之数月，城中人相食，乃举城降。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 39 (《資治通鑑·卷三十九》)
# 24 CE: Li Xiong's Counsel to Gongsun Shu, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] &quot;Now the lands east of the mountains suffer Great Famine; the common folk eat each other. Where armies have passed, cities and towns are left as mounds of rubble.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 今山东饥馑，人庶相食；兵所屠灭，城邑丘墟。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Wei Xiao and Gongsun Shu, Vol. 13&quot; (《後漢書·卷十三·隗囂公孫述列傳第三》)
# 25 CE: The Red Eyebrows Sack Chang'an, ''Book of Han''
#: '''English''': The Red Eyebrows burned the palaces and markets of Chang'an and slew Gengshi. The starving people ate each other; those who perished numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Chang'an was left a wasteland, and none walked its streets.
#: '''Original:''' 赤眉遂烧长安宫室市里，害更始。民饥饿相食，死者数十万，长安为虚，城中无人行。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Han|Book of Han]]'', &quot;Biography of Wang Mang, Vol. 99c&quot; (《漢書·卷九十九下·王莽傳第六十九下》)
# 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': Great Famine struck Guanzhong; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 关中饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Guangwu, Vol. 1a&quot; (《後漢書·卷一上·光武帝紀第一上》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': At that time, the three adjuncts were in great turmoil; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, white bones lay strewn across the fields, and the survivors gathered here and there in fortified encampments, each holding firm.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅大乱，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野，遗人往往聚为营保，各坚守不下。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Xuan and Liu Penzi, Vol. 11&quot; (《後漢書·卷十一·劉玄劉盆子列傳第一》)
## 26 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine struck the three adjuncts; people ate each other, the cities and towns were emptied, and white bones lay strewn across the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 三辅大饥，人相食，城郭皆空，白骨蔽野。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 40 (《資治通鑑·卷四十》)
# 27 CE: Siege of Ji, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Within Zhu Fu's city of Ji, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 41 (《資治通鑑·卷四十一》)
## 27 CE: Siege of Ji'', Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Within Fu's city, provisions were exhausted; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 浮城中粮尽，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Zhu, Feng, Yu, Zheng and Zhou, Vol. 33&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十三·朱馮虞鄭周列傳第二十三》)
# 27 CE: Yan Cen's Retreat to Nanyang, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': At that time the people suffered Great Famine and ate each other; one jin of gold could be exchanged for but five sheng of beans. The roads were cut off and supplies could not get through; the soldiers subsisted on wild fruit.
#: '''Original:''' 时，百姓饥饿，人相食，黄金一斤易豆五升。道路断隔，委输不至，军士委以果实为粮。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Feng, Cen and Jia, Vol. 17&quot; (《後漢書·卷十七·馮岑賈列傳第七》)
# 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Great Famine in the Capital, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the third month, Great Famine struck the capital; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 三月，京师大饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year, the capital and forty-one commanderies and kingdoms suffered hail. Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，京师及郡国四十一雨水雹。并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor An, Vol. 5&quot; (《後漢書·卷五·孝安帝紀第五》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''jin Shu''
##: '''English''': In the third year of Yongchu under Emperor An, floods and drought struck the realm; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 安帝永初三年，天下水旱，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
## 109 CE: Floods and Famine Across the Realm, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The capital and forty-one commanderies suffered floods; Great Famine struck Bing and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师及郡国四十一雨水，并、凉二州大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 49 (《資治通鑑·卷四十九》)
# 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Drought struck the capital. Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 京师旱。任城、梁国饥，民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
## 151 CE: Drought and Famine, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Drought struck the capital; Great Famine afflicted Rencheng and Liang; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 京师旱，任城、梁国饥，民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Huan, Vol. 7&quot; (《後漢書·卷七·孝桓帝紀第七》)
# 155 CE: Famine in Sili and Jizhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': In the second month, famine struck Sili and Jizhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 二月，司隶、冀州饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 53 (《資治通鑑·卷五十三》)
# 170 CE: Spousal Cannibalism in Henei and Henan, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring in the third year of Jianning, in Henei wives ate their husbands, and in Henan husbands ate their wives.
#: '''Original:''' 三年春正月，河内人妇食夫，河南人夫食妇。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Ling, Vol. 8&quot; (《後漢書·卷八·孝靈帝紀第八》)
# 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': A great drought struck the three adjuncts from the fourth month to this day. At that time one hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins, and one hu of beans or wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles.
#: '''Original:''' 三辅大旱，自四月至于是月。是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦一斛二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 194 CE: Great Drought in the Three Adjuncts, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': From the fourth month no rain fell. One hu of grain was worth fifty thousand coins; within Chang'an, people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 自四月不雨至于是月，谷一斛直钱五十万，长安中人相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# Liu Ping Spared by Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Ping, styled Gongzi, was a man of Pengcheng in Chu. During the upheavals of the Gengshi era, he and his mother hid together in the wilderness. 
#: One morning he went out to forage for food and was seized by starving bandits who meant to boil and eat him. He knelt and said: &quot;This morning I went to gather herbs for my aged mother, who depends on me for her life. I beg ye to let me return, feed my mother, and then come back to die.&quot; Tears streamed down his face. 
#: The bandits, moved by his sincerity, took pity and released him. Liu Ping returned, fed his mother, and then told her: &quot;I made a pledge to the bandits; honour forbids me to deceive them.&quot; He went back to the bandits. They were all greatly astonished and said to one another: &quot;We have long heard of men of fierce integrity — now we behold one. Go, friend; we have not the heart to eat thee.&quot; And so he was spared.
#: '''Original:''' 刘平字公子，楚郡彭城人也。[…] 更始时，天下乱，[…] 与母俱匿野泽中。平朝出求食，逢饿贼，将亨（通“烹”）之，平叩头曰：“今旦为老母求菜，老母待旷为命，愿得先归，食母毕，还就死。”因涕泣。贼见其至诚，哀而遣之。平还，既食母讫，因白曰：“属与贼期，义不可欺。”遂还诣贼。众皆大惊，相谓曰：“常闻烈士，乃今见之。子去矣，吾不忍食子。”于是得全。（《后汉书·卷三十九·刘赵淳于江刘周赵列传第二十九》）
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Zhao Xiao Offers Himself to Cannibals, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [After the fall of Wang Mang] the realm fell into turmoil and people ate each other. [Zhao Xiao's] younger brother Li was seized by starving bandits. 
#: Upon hearing this, Zhao Xiao bound himself and went to the bandits, saying: &quot;Li hath long been starved and is thin and gaunt; I filleth ye hunger better than him&quot; The bandits were greatly astonished and released them both, saying: &quot;Go home for now, and bring back rice and dried provisions instead.&quot; 
#: Xiao sought provisions but could find none; he returned to the bandits and offered himself for the pot. The bandits, marvelling at him, did him no harm.
#: '''Original:''' （王莽之後）天下乱，人相食。孝弟礼为饿贼所得，孝闻之，即自缚诣贼，曰：&quot;礼久饿羸瘦，不如孝肥饱。&quot;贼大惊，并放之，谓曰：&quot;可且归，更持米糒来。&quot;孝求不能得，复往报贼，愿就亨。众异之，遂不害。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wang Lin Guards His Parents' Tomb, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': In Runan there was a man named Wang Lin, a junior official, who lost his parents when he was but ten years of age. 
#: When great turmoil broke out and the people fled, only Wang Lin and his brothers remained to guard the burial mound, their weeping unceasing. His younger brother Ji went out and was seized by the Red Eyebrows, who meant to eat him. Wang Lin bound himself and begged to die in his brother's stead. 
#: The bandits, moved to pity, released them both; and by this deed Wang Lin's name became renowned throughout his hometown.
#: '''Original:''' 汝南有王琳巨尉者，年十余岁丧父母。因遭大乱，百姓奔逃，惟琳兄弟独守冢庐，号泣不绝。弟季，出遇赤眉，将为所哺，琳自缚，请先季死，贼矜而放遣，由是显名乡邑。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Wei Tan Spares His Fellow Captives, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Wei Tan of Langye, styled Shaoxian, was likewise seized by starved bandits. Several dozen captives were bound and awaited their turn to be boiled. 
#: The bandits, seeing that Tan appeared honest and trustworthy, set him apart to tend the cooking fire, though they bound him again each evening. Among the bandits was one Yi Changgong, who took especial pity on Tan; he secretly loosened Tan's bonds and said: &quot;Ye are all destined to be eaten; flee hence at once.&quot; 
#: Tan replied: &quot;I have tended the fire for ye, there I always had some leavings for myself; the others have been fed only on grass and weeds; better to eat (''relatively well-fed'') me instead.&quot; Changgong, moved by his righteousness, persuaded the others to release all the captives, and all were spared.
#: '''Original:''' 琅邪魏谭少闲者，时亦为饥寇所获，等辈数十人皆束缚，以次当亨（通“烹”）。贼见谭似谨厚，独令主爨，暮辄执缚。贼有夷长公，特哀念谭，密解其缚，语曰：&quot;汝曹皆应就食，急从此去。&quot;对曰：&quot;谭为诸君爨，恒得遗余，余人皆菇草莱，不如食我。&quot;长公义之，相晓赦遣，并得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Er Meng and Che Cheng Offer Themselves for Each Other, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Er Meng Ziming of Qi and Che Cheng Ziwei of Liangjun, brothers, were seized together by the Red Eyebrows and were about to be eaten. Meng and Cheng knelt and each begged to die in the other's stead. The bandits, moved to pity, released them both.
#: '''Original:''' 齐国兒萌子明、梁郡车成子威二人，兄弟并见执于赤眉，将食之，萌、成叩头，乞以身代，贼亦哀而两释焉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)
# Chunyu Gong Offers Himself for His Brother, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': Chunyu Gong, styled Mengsun, was a man of Chunyu in Beihai. […] At the end of Wang Mang's reign, when famine and war arose, his elder brother Chong was seized by bandits who meant to boil and eat him. Gong begged to take his brother's place; both were released.
#: '''Original:''' 淳于恭字孟孙，北海淳于人也。[…] 王莽末，岁饥兵起，恭兄崇将为盗所亨，恭请代，得俱免。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu, Zhao, Chunyu, Jiang, Liu, Zhou and Zhao, Vol. 39&quot; (《後漢書·卷三十九·劉趙淳于江劉周趙列傳第二十九》)

== Three Kingdoms period ==
According to population statics at the time, the population of the Three Kingdoms period was only one-seventh of that during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.&lt;ref&gt;秦晖，《中国历史上，何来如此深仇大恨》&lt;/ref&gt; This was the largest population decrease in Chinese history, evidenced by Cao Cao's poem; &quot;Pale bones exposed in wild fields, no crowing of roosters heard throughout thousands of li&quot; (白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣).
# 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': That year, one hu of grain fetched over fifty thousand coins; people ate each other. Newly recruited troops were thereupon disbanded.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁谷一斛五十余万钱，人相食，乃罢吏兵新募者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (《三國志·卷一·魏書一·武帝紀》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(2)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao led his forces back and gave battle to Lü Bu at Puyang; his army fared ill and the two sides held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew eastward to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 太祖引军还，与布战于濮阳，太祖军不利，相持百余日。是时岁旱、虫蝗、少谷，百姓相食，布东屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Lü Bu, Vol. 7&quot; (《三國志·卷七·魏書七·呂布臧洪傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Sanguozhi(3)''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao and Lü Bu held their positions at Puyang; Sima Lang thereupon led his household back to Wen. That year brought Great Famine; people ate each other. Lang gathered and succoured his kinsmen, tutored his younger brothers, and did not abandon his studies in that age of decline.
##: '''Original:''' 时岁大饥，人相食，朗收恤宗族，教训诸弟，不为衰世解业。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Sima Lang, Vol. 15&quot; (《三國志·卷十五·魏書十五·劉司馬梁張溫賈傳》)
## 194 CE: Famine During the Puyang Campaign, ''Hou Han Shu''
##: '''English''': Cao Cao heard of this and led his forces to attack Lü Bu; they fought repeatedly and held their positions for over a hundred days. That year brought drought, locusts and scarcity of grain; the people ate each other. Lü Bu withdrew to encamp at Shanyang.
##: '''Original:''' 曹操闻而引军击布，累战，相持百余日。是时，旱、蝗，少谷，百姓相食，布移屯山阳。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
# 194 CE: Cheng Yu's Human Jerky, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': In the beginning, Cao Cao's forces lacked provisions. 
#: Cheng Yu seized supplies from his home county to provide three days' rations, mixed in no small part with dried human flesh. By this reason, he lost the favour of the ''(heavenly)'' court, and therefore never attained the rank of the Excellencies.
#: '''Original:''' 初，太祖乏食；昱略其本县，供三日粮，颇杂以人脯。由是失朝望，故位不至公。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weijin Shiyu'', &quot;Biography of Cheng Yu, Vol. 14&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷十四·魏書十四·程昱傳》引《魏晉世語》)
# 195 CE: Great Famine at Chengshi, ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Cao Cao's forces were stationed at Chengshi. Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 太祖军乘氏，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biography of Xun Yu, Vol. 10&quot; (《三國志·卷十·魏書十·荀彧荀攸賈詡傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat.
#: The chief clerk reported that there were three dou of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong said: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this?&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops.
#: He also slew all his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seventy or eighty men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' （东郡）初尚掘鼠，煮筋角，后无所复食，主簿启内厨米三斗，请稍为饘粥，洪曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪？&quot;使为薄糜，遍班士众。又杀其爱妾，以食兵将。兵将咸流涕，无能仰视。男女七八十人相枕而死，莫有离叛。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Zang Hong, Vol. 58&quot; (《後漢書·卷五十八·虞詡等列傳》)
# 195 CE: The Siege of Dongjun, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': At first they still dug for rats and boiled sinew and hide; afterwards there was nothing left to eat. 
#: The chief clerk reported only three sheng of rice in the inner kitchen and requested it be made into gruel. Zang Hong sighed: &quot;How could I alone enjoy this!&quot; He had it made into thin porridge and distributed among all the troops; he also slew his beloved concubine to feed his officers and men. 
#: The officers and men all wept; none could raise their eyes to look upon him. Seven or eight thousand men and women died lying upon one another; not one deserted or betrayed him.
#: '''Original:''' 初尚掘鼠煮筋角，后无可复食者。主簿启内厨米三升，请稍以为饘粥，臧洪叹曰：&quot;何能独甘此邪！&quot;使作薄糜，遍班士众，又杀其爱妾以食将士。将士咸流涕，无能仰视者。男女七八千人，相枕而死，莫有离叛者。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in piles, and the stench of rot filled the roads. [...] After Li Jue and Guo Si turned upon each other and the Son of Heaven departed eastward, Chang'an stood empty for over forty days. The strong scattered; the weak ate each other. Within two or three years, not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
#: '''Original:''' 自（李）傕、（郭）汜相攻，天子东归后，是时，谷一斛五十万，豆、麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨委积，臭秽满路。……长安城空四十余日，强者四散，蠃者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biography of Dong Zhuo, Vol. 72&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十二·董卓列傳第六十二》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': At that time the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder, attacking and pillaging cities and towns. The people suffered Great Famine; within two years they had eaten each other to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 时三辅民尚数十万户，傕等放兵劫略，攻剽城邑，人民饥困，二年间相啖食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Jin Shu''
##: '''English''': [...] One hu of grain fetched fifty thousand coins; beans and wheat twenty thousand. People ate each other; white bones lay heaped in great mounds, the rotting remains befouling the roads. [...] Chang'an stood entirely empty; all scattered to the four winds. Within two or three years, not a traveller remained in Guanzhong. [...] Since Dong Zhuo's rebellion, the people had been scattered and adrift; grain reached over fifty thousand coins per shi, and many ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 是时谷一斛五十万，豆麦二十万，人相食啖，白骨盈积，残骸余肉，臭秽道路。……长安城中尽空，并皆四散，二三年间，关中无复行人。……汉自董卓之乱，百姓流离，谷石至五十余万，人多相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Jin Shu|Jin Shu]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce, Vol. 26&quot; (《晉書·卷二十六·志第十六·食貨》)
##195–197 CE: The Chaos of Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': When Dong Zhuo first died, the three adjuncts still held several hundred thousand households. Li Jue and his confederates unleashed their troops to plunder; compounded by Great Famine, within two years the people had eaten each other nearly to the last. 
##: [...] At that time Chang'an stood empty for over forty days; the strong scattered, the weak ate each other, and within two or three years not a human trace remained in Guanzhong.
##: '''Original:''' 董卓初死，三辅民尚数十万户，李傕等放兵劫略，加以饥馑，二年间，民相食略尽。……是时，长安城空四十馀日，强者四散，羸者相食，二三年间，关中无复人迹。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 61 (《資治通鑑·卷六十一》)
# 195–197 CE: Wang Zhong the Cannibal, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Wang Zhong was a man of Fufeng who in his youth served as a village headman. When the three adjuncts fell into turmoil, Zhong, starving and desperate, ate human flesh, and followed a band of men southward toward Wuguan. [...]
#: The Master of the Wuguan Office, knowing that Zhong had once eaten human flesh, took him along on an imperial outing and had entertainers fasten a skull from a grave to Zhong's saddle, to the great amusement of all.
#: '''Original:''' 王忠，扶风人。少为亭长。三辅乱，忠饥乏噉人，随辈南向武关。……五官将知忠尝噉人，因从驾出行，令俳取冢间骷髅系著忠马鞍，以为欢笑。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Weilüe'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Wu, Vol. 1&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·魏書·武帝紀》引《魏略》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Zizhi Tongjian
#: '''English''': Liu Bei gathered his remaining forces and moved east to Guangling, gave battle to Yuan Shu, and was again defeated; he encamped at Haixi. Beset by hunger and hardship, his officers and men ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 备收馀兵东取广陵，与袁术战，又败，屯于海西。饥饿困踧，吏士相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 196 CE: Liu Bei's Army Starves at Haixi, Pei Songzhi's Commentary
#: '''English''': Liu Bei's army being at Guangling, hunger and hardship upon them; officers and men, high and low, ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 備軍在廣陵，飢餓困踧，吏士大小自相啖食。
#: '''Source:''' Pei Songzhi's ''[[:w:Annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms|Sanguozhi Annotations]]'', citing the lost ''Yingxiong Ji'', &quot;Biography of the Progenitor Ruler, Vol. 32&quot; (裴松之《三國志注·卷三十二·蜀書·先主傳》引《英雄記》)
# 196 CE: Famine Under Gongsun Zan's Rule, ''Hou Han Shu''
#: '''English''': [...] That year brought drought and locusts; grain grew dear and people ate each other. Gongsun Zan, relying on his own abilities, showed no concern for the people.
#: '''Original:''' 是时，旱、蝗，谷贵，民相食。瓒恃其才力，不恤百姓。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yu, Gongsun Zan and Tao Qian, Vol. 73&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十三·劉虞公孫瓚陶謙列傳第六十三》)
# 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(1)''
#: '''English''': That year brought famine; along the Yangtze and Huai rivers, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁饥，江淮间民相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Xian, Vol. 9&quot; (《後漢書·卷九·孝獻帝紀第九》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Hou Han Shu(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's forces were weakened, his great generals dead, and his followers estranged and in revolt. Compounded by drought and failed harvests, his officers and people froze and starved; along the Yangtze and Huai, people had eaten each other nearly to the last.
##: '''Original:''' 术兵弱，大将死，众情离叛，加天旱岁荒，士民冻馁，江、淮间相食殆尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of the Later Han|Hou Han Shu]]'', &quot;Biographies of Liu Yan, Yuan Shu and Lü Bu, Vol. 75&quot; (《後漢書·卷七十五·劉焉袁術呂布列傳第六十五》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Sanguozhi''
##: '''English''': Yuan Shu's extravagance grew ever more excessive; his rear palace of several hundred consorts all wore fine silks, with surplus of grain and meat, whilst his officers and men froze and starved. Along the Yangtze and Huai the land was emptied; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 荒侈滋甚，后宫数百皆服绮縠，余粱肉，而士卒冻馁，江淮间空尽，人民相食。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of Dong, the Two Yuans and Liu, Vol. 6&quot; (《三國志·卷六·魏書六·董二袁劉傳》)
## 197 CE: Famine Along the Yangtze and Huai, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Since the Zhongping era, the realm had fallen into turmoil; the people abandoned farming, armies rose on all sides, and provisions were ever wanting. When hungry, the troops plundered; when fed, they abandoned their surplus. Those who collapsed and scattered, undone by no enemy but themselves, were beyond counting. Yuan Shao in Hebei had his men subsist on mulberries; Yuan Shu along the Yangtze and Huai drew sustenance from cattail and river snails. The people ate each other, and the commanderies were left desolate.
##: '''Original:''' 中平以来，天下乱离，民弃农业，诸军并起，率乏粮谷，无终岁之计，饥则寇略，饱则弃馀，瓦解流离，无敌自破者，不可胜数。袁绍在河北，军人仰食桑椹。袁术在江淮，取给蒲蠃，民多相食，州里萧条。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 62 (《資治通鑑·卷六十二》)
# 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping. ''Sanguozhi''
#: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire stuation. His provisions exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
#: '''Original:''' 渊窘急。粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sanguozhi|Sanguozhi]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Two Gongsuns, Tao and Four Zhangs, Vol. 8&quot; (《三國志·卷八·魏書八·二公孫陶四張傳》)
## 238 CE: Siege of Xiangping, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Gongsun Yuan was in dire situation; provisions in Xiangping were exhausted, people ate each other, and the dead were very many.
##: '''Original:''' 公孙渊窘急，粮尽，人相食，死者甚多。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 74 (《資治通鑑·卷七十四》)

==West Jin==

# 304 CE: The Famine of Chang'an and the Sack of Luoyang, ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Shen Ju raised arms against Chang'an, yet was routed by (Sima) Yong. Zhang Fang greatly plundered Luo, then withdrew unto Chang'an. Thereupon the armies fell into dire want, and men did eat one another.
#: '''Original:''' 沈举举兵攻长安，为（司马）颙所败。张方大掠洛中，还长安。于是军中大馁，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals of Emperor Hui&quot; (《晋书·卷四·帝纪第四·惠帝》)
# 304 CE: The Plunder of Luoyang, in ''[[w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Zhang Fang) did seize from Luo above ten thousand bondsmen and bondswomen, both of state and private households, and marched them westward. The army, lacking victuals, did slay men and mingle their flesh with that of oxen and horses for sustenance.
#: '''Original:''' （张方）掠洛中官私奴婢万馀人而西。军中乏食，杀人杂牛马肉食之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 85 (《资治通鉴》卷85)
# 306 CE: The Tyranny of Pan Tao and Bi Miao, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': (Pan) Tao and (Bi) Miao and their like seized (Sima) Yue and force him beyond the passes, falsely establishing a mobile administration, compelling the removal of ministers, issuing decrees by their own will, loosing soldiers to plunder and ravage, consuming the flesh of the common people, with corpses choking the roads and bleached bones filling the wilderness. Thus did the provincial lords betrayed their obligation, the cities and towns fall desolate, and the folk of Huai and Yu were casted into utter misery.
#: '''Original:''' （潘）滔、（毕）邈等劫（司马）越出关，矫立行台，逼徙公卿，擅为诏令，纵兵寇抄，茹食居人，交尸塞路，暴骨盈野。遂令方镇失职，城邑萧条，淮豫之萌，陷离涂炭。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biography of Zhou Jun et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十一·列传第三十一·周浚等》)
# 311 CE, eign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Rout at Ningping and the Death of Sima Yue, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': In the fifth year of Yongjia (the third month), (Sima) Yue did perish at Xiang. In the fourth month, Shi Le gave pursuit unto Ningping in Ku County; General Qian Duan sallied forth to resist him and fell in battle, the army breaking asunder. Thereupon Shi Le encircled the host of several hundred thousand with cavalry and loosed arrows upon them; the slain were heaped as mountains. Of princes, nobles, officers, and commoners, above a hundred thousand perished. Wang Mi's brother Zhang did burn the remnant and devour them. 
#: The people laid blame upon (Sima) Yue, and Emperor Huai issued a decree degrading Yue to the rank of a county king.
#: '''Original:''' 永嘉五年（三月），（司马越）薨于项。……（四月，）石勒追及于苦县宁平城，将军钱端出兵距勒，战死，军溃。……于是数十万众，（石）勒以骑围而射之，相践如山。王公士庶死者十余万。王弥弟璋焚其余众，并食之。天下归罪于（司马）越。（晋怀）帝发诏贬越为县王。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biography of King Liang of Runan et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十九·列传第二十九·汝南王亮等》)
# 311 CE, Reign of [[:w:Emperor Huai of Jin|Emperor Huai of Jin]]: The Famine in the Passes, in ''[[w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': At that time, famine ravaged the lands within the passes; the common folk consumed ate each other. Pestilence spreaded upon them, and bandits roamed openly, beyond the power of (Sima) Mo to suppress.
#: '''Original:''' 時關中饑荒，百姓相啖；加以疾疫，盜賊公行，（司马）模力不能制。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin (晉書)]]'', &quot;Biographies of the Imperial Clan&quot; (《晋书·卷三十七·列传第七·宗室》)
# 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': Grand General Xun Xi memorialized to relocate the capital to Cangyuan; the Emperor was minded to comply, yet the great ministers, fearing (Pan) Tao, dared not carry out the edict, and the palace eunuchs, coveting their riches, were loath to depart. Famine grew great; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials fled.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军苟晞表迁都仓垣,帝将从之,诸大臣畏滔,不敢奉诏,且宫中及黄门恋资财,不欲出。至是饥甚,人相食,百官流亡者十八九。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': By the Yongjia era, calamity and disorder had worsened greatly. East of Yongzhou, multitudes suffered hunger; they sold one another into bondage, and the wandering multitudes were beyond count. Six provinces — You, Bing, Si, Ji, Qin, and Yong — were struck by great locusts, devouring all grass, trees, and the fur of cattle and horses. Great pestilence followed, joined by famine. People were slain by brigands; corpses filled the rivers, and white bones covered the fields. As Liu Yao's forces pressed close, the court deliberated removing the capital to Cangyuan. People ate each other; famine and plague came together, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 至于永嘉,丧乱弥甚。雍州以东,人多饥乏,更相鬻卖,奔迸流移,不可胜数。幽、并、司、冀、秦、雍六州大蝗,草木及牛马毛皆尽。又大疾疫,兼以饥馑。百姓又为寇贼所杀,流尸满河,白骨蔽野。刘曜之逼,朝廷议欲迁都仓垣。人多相食,饥疫总至,百官流亡者十八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](3)''
##: '''English''': Emperor Huai being besieged by Liu Yao, the imperial armies suffered repeated defeat, the treasury was exhausted, and the hundred officials were greatly famished; smoke of cooking fires was seen in no house. The starving fed upon one another. In the west, where Emperor Min resided, hunger was exceeding great; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, and more than half the people perished.
##: '''Original:''' 怀帝为刘曜所围,王师累败,府帑既竭,百官饥甚,比屋不见火烟,饥人自相啖食。愍皇西宅,馁馑弘多,斗米二金,死者太半。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Treatise on Food and Commerce&quot; (《晋书·卷二十六·志第十六·食货》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](4)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell into chaos, with thieves running rampant, people ate each other out of hunger. (Zhi) Yu, being ever poor and frugal, perished at last of starvation.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛京荒乱,盗窃纵横,人饥相食。虞素清贫,遂以馁卒。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Huangfu Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷五十一·列传第二十一·皇甫谧等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](5)''
##: '''English''': (Wang) Mi, together with (Liu) Yao, attacked Xiangcheng and pressed upon the capital. The capital suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, the common folk fled, and the dukes and ministers escaped to Heyin.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥后与曜寇襄城,遂逼京师。时京邑大饥,人相食,百姓流亡,公卿奔河阴。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](6)''
##: '''English''': Wang Mi and Liu Yao arrived and joined (Huyan) Yan in besieging Luoyang. Within the city, famine was dire; people ate each other, the hundred officials scattered, and none held firm. The Xuanyang Gate fell; Mi and Yan entered the Southern Palace, ascended the Taiji Front Hall, and loosed their soldiers in great plunder, seizing all palace women and treasures. Yao thereupon slew all the princes, nobles, and officers below, in which numbered more than thirty thousand in all, and thereupon raised a great mound of their skulls north of the Luo River.
##: '''Original:''' 王弥、刘曜至,复与晏会围洛阳。时城内饥甚,人皆相食,百官分散,莫有固志。宣阳门陷,弥、晏入于南宫,升太极前殿,纵兵大掠,悉收宫人、珍宝。曜于是害诸王公及百官已下三万余人,于洛水北筑为京观。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism During the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': Ere long, Luoyang fell to famine and distress; people ate each other, and eight or nine in ten officials had fled.
##: '''Original:''' 既而洛阳饥困,人相食,百官流亡者什八九。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 87 (《资治通鉴》卷87)
## 311 CE, Reign of Emperor Huai of Jin (永嘉五年): Great Famine and Cannibalism After the Fall of Luoyang, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](7)''
##: '''English''': When Luoyang fell, Grand Commandant Xun Fan fled to Yangcheng, and General of the Guard Hua Hui fled to Chenggao. A Great Famine prevailed; the bandit chief Hou Du and his ilk seized men for food, and many of Fan's and Hui's followers were thus devoured.
##: '''Original:''' 及洛阳不守，太尉荀藩奔阳城，卫将军华荟奔成皋。时大饥，贼帅侯都等每略人而食之，藩、荟部曲多为所啖。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Shao Xu et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十三·列传第三十三·邵续等》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism Among Han Zhao Troops, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': The Han Zhao generals Zhao Gu and Wang Sang, fearing absorption by Shi Le, sought to lead their forces back to Pingyang. Provisions within the army ran short, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 汉安北将军赵固、平北将军王桑恐为石勒所并，欲引兵归平阳。军中乏粮，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'' and ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': (Shi) Le, at Gepei, built dwellings, encouraged farming, and constructed boats, intending to attack Jiankang. Yet wherever he marched, the people had fortified their walls and cleared the fields; nothing could be plundered, and great famine fell upon the army, so that soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 勒于葛陂缮室宇，课农造舟，将寇建邺。……勒所过路次，皆坚壁清野，采掠无所获，军中大饥，士众相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Shi Le I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百四·载记第四·石勒上》)
# 312 CE: Cannibalism in Shi Le's Army at Gepei, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
#: '''English''': As Shi Le marched north from Gepei, all along his path the people had fortified and cleared the fields; nothing could be seized. Famine within the army grew dire, and soldiers ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 石勒自葛陂北行，所过皆坚壁清野，虏掠无所获，军中饥甚，士卒相食。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 88 (《资治通鉴》卷88)
# 314 CE: Monstrous Birth and Cannibalism in Guangyi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': The wife of Yang Chong of Guangyi bore a child with two heads; her brother stole and ate it, and died within three days.
#: '''Original:''' 光义人羊充妻产子二头，其兄窃而食之，三日而死。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)
# 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](1)''
#: '''English''': In the tenth month of winter, the capital Chang'an suffered dire famine; a peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 冬十月，京师饥甚，米斗金二两，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Annals, Emperor Huai &amp; Emperor Min&quot; (《晋书·卷五·帝纪第五·孝怀帝 孝愍帝》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]](2)''
##: '''English''': When Liu Yao again besieged the capital, (Suo) Chen and Qu Yun held fast to the inner city of Chang'an. Within, famine was dire; people ate each other, and the dead, fugitives, and deserters were beyond restraint; only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm unto death.
##: '''Original:''' 后刘曜又率众围京城、綝与麹允固守长安小城。……城中饥窘，人相食，死亡逃奔不可制，唯凉州义众千人守死不移。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', &quot;Biographies, Xie Xi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷六十·列传第三十·解系等》)
## 316 CE, Reign of Emperor Min of Jin: Great Famine and Cannibalism at Chang'an, in ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]''
##: '''English''': In the eighth month, the Han Zhao Grand Marshal (Liu) Yao pressed upon Chang'an. Yao stormed the outer city; Qu Yun and Suo Chen withdrew to defend the inner city. All communication within and without was severed; famine within grew dire. A peck of grain cost two taels of gold, people ate each other, and more than half had perished; deserters and fugitives could not be restrained. Only the thousand loyal troops from Liangzhou stood firm. In the imperial granary there remained but several dozen cakes of leaven; Qu Yun ground them into gruel to feed the Emperor, yet ere long even these were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 八月，汉大司马曜逼长安。……曜攻陷長安外城，麴允、索綝退保小城以自固。內外斷絕，城中饑甚。斗米值金二兩，人相食，死者大半，亡逃不可制。唯涼州義眾千人守死不移。太倉有麴數十餅，麴允屑之為粥以供帝，既而亦盡。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]]'', Vol. 89 (《资治通鉴》卷89)
# 316 CE: Great Famine and Cannibalism in Beidi, in ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]''
#: '''English''': Famine in Beidi was dire; people ate each other. Qiang Qiou's army transported grain to supply Qu Chang, but was defeated by Liu Ya.
#: '''Original:''' 北地饥甚，人相食啖，羌酋大军须运粮以给麹昌，刘雅击败之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Book of Jin|Book of Jin]]'', Vol. 102 &quot;Chronicles, Liu Cong et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二·载记第二·刘聪等》)

==East Jin==
# 319 CE: Slicing and Eating of Du Zeng's Flesh, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Du Zeng's forces collapsed; his generals Ma Jun and Su Wen captured him and surrendered to Zhou Fang. Zhou Fang wished to bring him alive to Wuchang, but Zhu Gui's son Zhu Chang and Zhao You's son Zhao Yin both begged for Du Zeng to avenge their fathers' grievances. Du Zeng was thereupon beheaded; Chang and Yin sliced his flesh and ate it.
#: '''Original:''' 曾众溃，其将马俊、苏温等执曾诣访降。访欲生致武昌，而朱轨息昌、赵诱息胤皆乞曾以复冤，于是斩杜曾，而昌、胤脔其肉而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 100, &quot;Biographies, Vol. 70: Wang Mi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百·列传第七十·王弥等》)
# c. 321 CE: Xu Kan Fed to His Own Kin After Execution, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Shi Jilong attacked and captured Xu Kan, sending him to Xiangguo. Shi Le had him bagged and hurled to his death from the hundred-foot tower, then ordered the wives and children of Bu Du and others to disembowel and eat him; three thousand of Xu Kan's surrendered troops were buried alive.
#: '''Original:''' 石季龙攻陷徐龛，送之襄国，勒囊盛于百尺楼自上扑杀之，令步都等妻子刳而食之，坑龛降卒三千。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 105, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 5: Shi Le, Part II et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百五·载记第五·石勒下等》)
# c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays Palace Women and Nuns, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': After Shi Sui assumed full governance, he abandoned himself to wine and lust, acting with arrogant depravity. He would roam the fields with music playing as he entered, or venture by night into the homes of court officials to violate their wives and concubines. 
#: Of the palace women whom he had adorned and found comely, he would behead them, wash away the blood, place their heads upon platters, and pass them round for viewing. He also brought in comely Buddhist nuns, defiled them, then slew them; their flesh was boiled together with beef and mutton and eaten, and portions were also distributed to his attendants, who were interested in the flavor.
#: '''Original:''' 邃自总百揆之后，荒酒淫色，骄恣无道，或盘游于田，悬管而入，或夜出于宫臣家，淫其妻妾。妆饰宫人美淑者，斩首洗血，置于盘上，传共视之。又内诸比丘尼有姿色者，与其交亵而杀之，合牛羊肉煮而食之，亦赐左右，欲以识其味也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 106, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 6: Shi Jilong, Part I&quot; (《晋书·卷一百六·载记第六·石季龙上》)
## c. 337 CE: Shi Sui Slays and Cooks Palace Women and Nuns, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Shi Sui, Crown Prince of Later Zhao, was arrogant, lustful, and cruel; he delighted in adorning comely consorts, beheading them, washing away the blood, placing their heads upon platters, and passing them amongst his guests for viewing. He further cooked their flesh and shared it for eating.
##: '''Original:''' 邃骄淫残忍，好妆饰美姬，斩其首，洗血置盘上，与宾客传观之，又烹其肉共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 95 (《资治通鉴》卷95)
# 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Book of Jin(1)''
#: '''English''': Bandits and rebels arose like swarms; a Great Famine struck Si and Ji Provinces; people ate each other. 
#: From the final years of Shi Jilong, Ran Min had dispersed all the granaries and treasuries to cultivate personal loyalty. Warfare with the Qiang and Hu raged without cease, with battles every month. 
#: The transplanted households of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces, together with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man peoples, numbering several hundred myriads, returned to their native lands; their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another. With famine and pestilence, only two or three in ten reached their destinations. Throughout the realm there was great disorder, and none remained to till the fields.
#: '''Original:''' 贼盗蜂起，司、冀大饥，人相食。自季龙末年而闵尽散仓库以树私恩。与羌胡相攻，无月不战。青、雍、幽、荆州徙户及诸氐、羌、胡、蛮数百余万，各还本土，道路交错，互相杀掠，且饥疫死亡，其能达者十有二三。诸夏纷乱，无复农者。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 351 CE: Great Famine in Si and Ji Provinces, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The several hundred myriad transplanted peoples of Qing, Yong, You, and Jing Provinces — along with the Di, Qiang, Hu, and Man — whom Later Zhao had relocated, found the laws of Zhao no longer enforced and each returned to their native lands.
##: Their routes met in one point, where all of they slaughtered and plundered one another; only two or three in ten reached their destinations. The Central Plains fell into great disorder. Famine and pestilence followed; people ate each other, and none remained to till the fields.
##: '''Original:''' 后赵所徙青、雍、幽、荆四州人民及氐、羌、胡蛮数百万口，以赵法禁不行，各还本土；道路交错，互相杀掠，其能达者什有二、三。中原大乱。因以饥疫，人相食，无复耕者。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 352 CE: Famine in Ye, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of Shi Jilong were nearly all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 邺中饥，人相食，季龙时宫人被食略尽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 107, &quot;Chronicles, Vol. 7: Shi Jilong, Part II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百七·载记第七·石季龙下》)
## 352 CE: Famine in Ye'', Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A Great Famine struck Ye; people ate each other. The palace women from the time of the former Zhao were nearly all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 邺中大饥，人相食，故赵时宫人被食略尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 99 (《资治通鉴》卷99)
# 356 CE: Siege of Duan Kan's City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Duan Kan defended the Yin city under siege; the roads for gathering firewood were cut off, and people ate each other within the city.
#: '''Original:''' 段龛婴城自守，樵采路绝，城中人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 100 (《资治通鉴·卷一百》)
# 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': At this time there was a Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
#: '''Original:''' 时长安大饥，人相食，诸将归而吐肉以饴妻子。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Great Famine in Chang'an; people ate each other. Yao Chang rebelled at Beidi and allied with [Murong] Chong, jointly attacking Chang'an.
##: '''Original:''' 长安大饥，人民相食。姚苌叛于北地，与冲连和，合攻长安。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 385 CE: Great Famine at Chang'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In the first month, [Former] Qin's [Fu] Jian held a banquet for his ministers. Chang'an was then stricken by famine; people ate each other, and the generals, upon returning home, spat out flesh to feed their wives and children.
##: '''Original:''' 正月，(前)秦(苻)堅朝饗群臣，時長安飢，人相食，諸將歸，吐肉以飼妻子。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 385 CE: Murong Chong's Forces Eat the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Murong] Chong further dispatched his Secretariat Director Gao Gai to lead troops in a night assault on Chang'an, breaching the southern gate and entering the southern city. General of the Left Dou Chong and General of the Front Guards Li Bian and others repelled them, beheading 1,800 men, and divided the corpses for consumption.
#: '''Original:''' （慕容）冲又遣其尚书令高盖率众夜袭长安，攻陷南门，入于南城。左将军窦冲、前禁将军李辩等击败之，斩首千八百级，分其尸而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
# 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Murong Gui's troops suffered greatly from hunger and many fled to Zhongshan; the people of You and Ji prefectures ate each other. Earlier, a popular rhyme in the Pass East had said: &quot;Youzhou — born to be destroyed; if not destroyed, the people shall be extinguished.&quot; This was [Murong] Cui's birth name. Having held out against [Fu] Pi for a full year, the common people were nearly all dead.
#: '''Original:''' 慕容垂军人饥甚，多奔中山，幽、冀人相食。初，关东谣曰：&quot;幽州，生当灭。若不灭，百姓绝。&quot;（慕容）垂之本名。与（符）丕相持经年，百姓死几绝。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 114 &quot;Chronicles 14, Fu Jian II&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十四·载记第十四·苻坚下》)
## 385 CE: Famine in You and Ji Prefectures, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Yan and Qin having held out against each other for a full year, You and Ji prefectures suffered a Great Famine; people ate each other, and settlements lay desolate. Many of Yan's soldiers starved to death; the King of Yan, [Murong] Cui, forbade the people from raising silkworms and had them subsist on mulberry berries.
##: '''Original:''' 燕、秦相持經年，幽、冀大饑，人相食，邑落蕭條，燕之軍士多餓死，燕王（慕容）垂禁民養蠶，以桑椹為食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 106 (《资治通鉴·卷一百零六》)
# 386 CE: Fu Deng's Army Eats the Slain, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': [Fu] Deng, having succeeded Wei Ping, thenceforth held sole command of military campaigns. At this time drought brought widespread hunger, and the roads were lined with the starving dead. Whenever Deng won a battle and slew the enemy, he called it &quot;cooked meat,&quot; and said to his men: &quot;You fight in the morning and by evening are sated with flesh — why fear hunger!&quot; The troops followed his lead, eating the flesh of the slain, and were thereby well-fed and fit for battle.
#: '''Original:''' （苻）登既代卫平，遂专统征伐。是时岁旱众饥，道殣相望，登每战杀贼，名为熟食，谓军人曰：&quot;汝等朝战，暮便饱肉，何忧于饥！&quot;士众从之，啖死人肉，辄饱健能斗。 
#: '''Source:''' [[wikipedia:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 115 &quot;Chronicles 15, Fu Pi et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百十五·载记第十五·苻丕等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Jiuquan, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Wang Mu seized Jiuquan by surprise and proclaimed himself General-in-Chief and Governor of Liangzhou. At this time grain prices soared; one dou fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 王穆袭据酒泉，自称大将军、凉州牧。时谷价踊贵，斗直五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
# 387 CE: Famine in Liangzhou, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Great Famine in Liangzhou; one dou of rice fetched five hundred cash, people ate each other, and more than half perished.
#: '''Original:''' 涼州大饑，米斗直錢五百，人相食，死者太半。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷第一百一十二》)
# c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': In this time all means of livelihood were exhausted and the weak and elderly were many; the eastern lands suffered famine, and people exchanged children to eat. 
#: '''Original:''' 时生业已尽，老弱甚多，东土饥荒，易子而食;
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 100 &quot;Biographies 60, Preface&quot; (《宋书·卷一百·列传第六十·自序》)
## c. 399 CE: Sun En Rebellion, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': When [Sun] En raised his rebellion, all eight commanderies became a field of carnage. … The rebels' prohibitions went unheeded; they killed at will, and the number of officers and commoners slain was beyond reckoning. Some county magistrates were pickled and fed to their own wives and children; those who refused were dismembered. Such was their cruelty.
##: '''Original:''' （孙）恩既作乱，八郡尽为贼场，……贼等禁令不行，肆意杀戮，士庶死者不可胜计，或醢诸县令以食其妻子，不肯者辄支解之，其虐如此。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 96 &quot;Biographies 84, the Usurper Jin's Sima Rui et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十六·列传第八十四·僭晋司马叡等》)
# 401 CE, Longan 5: Omen of Famine and Usurpation, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Huan Xuan's memorial arrived, defying imperial intent and affronting the throne. Thereafter Xuan usurped the throne, threw the capital into disorder; there was a Great Famine, people ate each other, and the common people fled — all were fulfillments of these omens.
#: '''Original:''' 九月，桓玄表至，逆旨陵上。其后玄遂篡位，乱京都，大饥，人相食，百姓流亡，皆其应也。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
# 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': Grain prices at Guzang soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the streets.
#: '''Original:''' 姑臧谷价踊贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者十余万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，百姓请出城乞为夷虏奴婢者日有数百。隆惧沮动人情，尽坑之，于是积尸盈于衢路。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 122 &quot;Chronicles 22, Lü Guang et al.&quot; (《晋书·卷一百二十二·载记第二十二·吕光等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Rutan attacked repeatedly, leaving the people of Hexi unable to farm to the west. Grain prices soared; one dou fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a thousand starved to death. The city gates of Guzang were shut by day and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the barbarians. [Lü] Long, fearing this would demoralize the populace, had them all buried alive.
##: '''Original:''' 沮渠蒙逊、秃发辱檀频来攻击，河西之民，不得农西，谷价涌贵，斗直钱五千文，人相食，饿死者千余口。姑臧城门昼闭，樵采路断，民请出城，乞为夷虏奴婢者，日有数百。隆恐沮动人情，尽坑之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies 83, Liu Cong of the Xiongnu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十五·列传第八十三·匈奴刘聪等》)
## 402 CE: Famine at Guzang, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Great Famine at Guzang; one dou of rice fetched five thousand cash, people ate each other, and over a hundred thousand starved to death. The city gates were shut by day, and the roads for gathering firewood were cut off. Each day several hundred commoners petitioned to leave the city and offer themselves as slaves to the Hu barbarians; Lü Long, loathing the effect on morale, had them all buried alive, corpses piled up and filled the roads.
##: '''Original:''' 姑臧大饥，米斗直钱五千，人相食，饥死者十馀万口。城门昼闭，樵采路绝，民请出城为胡虏奴婢者，日有数百，吕隆恶其沮动众心，尽坑之，积尸盈路。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']], Vol. 112 (《资治通鉴·卷一百一十二》)
# 402 CE: Astronomical Omen of Famine, ''Book of Jin''
#: '''English''': In the fourth month, on the day xinsi, the moon occluded Mercury. In the seventh month, Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元兴元年四月辛丑，月奄辰星。七月，大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 12 &quot;Treatises 2, Astronomy II&quot; (《晋书·卷十二·志第二·天文中》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Book of Jin(1)''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month of Yuanxing 1, Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River died or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' 元兴元年七月，大饥，人相食。浙江以东流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半，又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Jin|''Book of Jin'']], Vol. 13 &quot;Treatises 3, Astronomy III&quot; (《晋书·卷十三·志第三·天文下》)
## 402 CE: Famine in the Eastern Regions, ''Song Shu''
##: '''English''': In the seventh month [of Yuanxing 1], Great Famine; people ate each other. Six or seven in ten east of the Zhe River starved to death or fled; the population of Wu Commandery and Wuxing was halved, and tens of thousands more fled westward.
##: '''Original:''' （元兴元年）七月，大饥，人相食。浙江东饿死流亡十六七，吴郡、吴兴户口减半；又流奔而西者万计。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises 15, Astronomy III&quot; (《宋书·卷二十五·志第十五·天文三》)
# 402 CE Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
#: '''Original:''' 及孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以赈邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|''Song Shu'']], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies 41, Liu Xiuzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷八十一·列传第四十一·刘秀之等》)
## 402 CE: Kong Clan Distributes Grain, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After the Sun En rebellion, the eastern lands suffered famine; people ate each other. The Kong clan distributed their household grain to relieve the neighbourhood, saving many lives; those who bore children thereafter named them Kong in gratitude.
##: '''Original:''' 孙恩乱后，东土饥荒，人相食，孔氏散家粮以振邑里，得活者甚众，生子皆以孔为名焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|''Nan Shi'']], Vol. 35 &quot;Biographies 25, Liu Zhan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷三十五·列传第二十五·刘湛等》)
# 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': [Tuoba] Shao, together with several attendants and eunuchs, scaled the palace walls and violated the forbidden precinct. The Emperor [Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui] started up in alarm, reached for his bow and sword but could not find them, and died suddenly. … The guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
#: '''Original:''' （拓跋）绍乃与帐下及宦者数人逾宫犯禁。帝（北魏道武皇帝拓跋珪）惊起，求弓刀不及，暴崩。……卫士执送绍，于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人。其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|''Bei Shi'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王等》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': The Supreme Ancestor (Taizong) arrived at the west of the city; the guards seized and delivered Shao. Thereupon Shao and his mother were put to death; the attending eunuchs and palace women who had acted as inner accomplices, numbering over ten, were executed. Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person were carved alive and eaten by the assembled ministers on the main avenue south of the city.
##: '''Original:''' 太宗至城西，卫士执送绍。于是赐绍母子死，诛帐下阉官、宫人为内应者十数人，其先犯乘舆者，群臣于城南都街生脔割而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|''Wei Shu'']], Vol. 16 &quot;Biographies 4, The Seven Princes of Daowu&quot; (《魏书·卷十六·列传第四·道武七王》)
## 409 CE: Cannibalism as Punishment for Regicide, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Those who had first laid hands upon the imperial person [Tuoba Gui] were carved and eaten by the assembled ministers.
##: '''Original:''' 其先犯乘舆（拓跋珪）者，群臣脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|''Zizhi Tongjian'']] (《资治通鉴》)


==Southern and Northern Dynasties==

# 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众万人攻南安。城内大饥，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 93 &quot;Biographies, 81: Pretenders and Vassals&quot; (《北史·卷九十三·列传第八十一·僭伪附庸》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Book of Wei''
##: '''English''': Helian Ding dispatched Wei Dai, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 赫连定遣其北平公韦代率众一万攻南安，城内大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 87: Zhang Shi, Governor of Liangzhou et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十九·列传第八十七·凉州牧张实等》)
## 431 CE: Siege of Nan'an, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Xia ruler (Helian Ding) attacked and defeated the Qin general Yao Xian; thereupon he dispatched his uncle Wei Fa, Duke of Beiping, with ten thousand men to attack Nan'an. Within the city there was Great Famine; people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 夏主（赫连定）击秦将姚献，败之；遂遣其叔父北平公韦伐帅众一万攻南安。城中大饥，人相食。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 122 (《资治通鉴》卷122)
# Yuanjia Era: Medicinal Corpse, ''Yi Yuan''
#: '''English''': In the Yuanjia era, the Hu family of Yuzhang opened the tomb of [[:w:Marquis of Haihun | King Changyi]], and a man of Qingzhou opened the tomb of [[:w:Duke Xiang of Qi|Duke Xiang of Qi]]; both found golden hooks, whilst the corpses remained intact in the rocks. This may not be certain, yet the corpse of [[:w:Jing Fang|Jing Fang]] remained complete until the Yixi era; the flesh of such frozen corpses was fit for medicine, and soldiers carved and ate thereof.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉中，豫章胡家奴開邑王冢，青州人開齊襄公冢，並得金鉤，而屍骸露在岩中儼然。茲亦未必有憑而然也，京房屍至義熙中猶完具，殭屍人肉堪為藥，軍士分割食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:zh:异苑|Yi Yuan]] by Liu Jingshu (《异苑》)
# 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': In the seventh month, Tuoba Tao dispatched an army to besiege Jiuquan. In the tenth month, there was famine within the city and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers. When the food was exhausted, the city fell; Tianzhou was captured and taken to Pingcheng, where he was executed.
#: '''Original:''' 七月，拓跋焘遣军围酒泉。十月，城中饥，万余口皆饿死，（沮渠）天周杀妻以食战士；食尽，城乃陷，执天周至平城，杀之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 58: Di Hu&quot; (《宋书·卷九十八·列传第五十八·氐胡》)
## 441 CE: Siege of Jiuquan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Food was exhausted within the city of Jiuquan and ten thousand people starved to death; Juqu Tianzhou killed his wife to feed the soldiers.
##: '''Original:''' 酒泉城中食尽，万馀口皆饿死，沮渠天周杀妻以食战士。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 123 (《资治通鉴》卷123)
# c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Qi Shu|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 28 &quot;Biographies, 9: Cui Zushi et al.&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十八·列传第九·崔祖思等》)
## c. 450 CE: Qingzhou Famine, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': At the end of the Yuanjia era, there was famine in Qingzhou; people ate each other. (Liu) Shanming had stored grain; he himself ate only thin porridge and opened his granaries to provide relief, whereby many in the village were saved. The people thereafter called his fields the &quot;Life-Sustaining Fields.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 元嘉末，青州饥荒，人相食。（刘）善明家有积粟，躬食饘粥，开仓以救，乡里多获全济，百姓呼其家田为续命田。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 49 &quot;Biographies, 39: Yu Gaozhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十九·列传第三十九·庾杲之等》)
# 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Song Shu''
#: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi, hearing the troops had entered, fled to the old foundations of the He-dian hall and stopped at the site of the imperial bed, where he was killed by rebel soldiers. They cut open his intestines, gouged out his heart, and carved his flesh; the generals ate it raw and burned his skull.
#: '''Original:''' 张超之闻兵入，遂走至合殿故基，正于御床之所，为乱兵所杀。割肠刳心，脔剖其肉，诸将生啖之，焚其头骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Song Shu|Song Shu]], Vol. 99 &quot;Biographies, 59: Two Villains&quot; (《宋书·卷九十九·列传第五十九·二凶》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, carved his flesh, and the generals ate it raw. They burned his skull.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。焚其头骨。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 14 &quot;Biographies, 4: Song Imperial Clan and Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十四·列传第四·宋宗室及诸王下》)
## 453 CE: Execution of Zhang Chaozhi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Zhang Chaozhi fled to the site of the imperial bed in the He-dian hall. He was killed by soldiers; they gouged his intestines and heart, and the generals carved his flesh and ate it raw.
##: '''Original:''' 张超之走至合殿御床之所。为军士所杀，刳肠割心，诸将脔其肉，生啖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 127 (《资治通鉴》卷127)
# c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Book of Song''
#: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs had fallen upon the bed, whereupon Liu Yong took and ate them. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed. Liu Yong replied, &quot;It is my nature to love this.&quot; Lingxiu then stripped away all remaining scabs from his body to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation so that the resulting scabs might constantly provide for his meals.
#: '''Original:''' （刘）邕所至嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，疮痂落床上，因取食之。灵休大惊。答曰：“性之所嗜。”灵休疮痂未落者，悉褫取以饴邕。邕既去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递互与鞭，鞭疮痂常以给膳。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Song|Book of Song]], Vol. 42 &quot;Biographies, 2: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《宋书·卷四十二·列传第二·刘穆之等》)
## c. 454 CE: Liu Yong's Consumption of Scabs, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Liu Yong had a passion for eating scabs, believing the taste resembled abalone. He once visited Meng Lingxiu; Lingxiu had previously suffered from [[:w:Moxibustion|moxibustion]] sores, and the scabs fell upon the bed, which Liu Yong took and ate. Lingxiu was greatly alarmed; he then stripped away all remaining scabs to provide for Liu Yong. After Liu Yong departed, Lingxiu wrote to He Xu, saying, &quot;Liu Yong approached me and ate [scabs], until my whole body bled.&quot; In Nankang Commandery, some two hundred officials, regardless of whether they were guilty or innocent, were whipped in rotation, and the scabs were constantly provided for his meals.
##: '''Original:''' （刘）邕性嗜食疮痂，以为味似鳆鱼。尝诣孟灵休，灵休先患灸疮，痂落在床，邕取食之。灵休大惊，痂未落者，悉褫取饴邕。邕去，灵休与何勖书曰：“刘邕向顾见啖，遂举体流血。”南康国吏二百许人，不问有罪无罪，递与鞭，疮痂常以给膳。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 15 &quot;Biographies, 5: Liu Muzhi et al.&quot; (《南史·卷十五·列传第五·刘穆之等》)
# 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': The former deposed Emperor (Liu Ziye) was maddened and lawless. Wang Yigong and Liu Yuanjing conspired to depose him; the deposed Emperor led the Yulin guards to their residences and slew them, along with their four sons. He cut and severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his abdomen and stomach, and plucked out his eyes to soak them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye [[:w:Zongzi|Zongzi]].&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 前废帝（刘子业）狂悖无道，（王）义恭、（柳）元景谋欲废立，废帝率羽林兵于第害之，并其四子。断析义恭支体，分裂腹胃，挑取眼睛以蜜渍之，以为鬼目粽。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 465 CE: Mutilation of Wang Yigong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': The Emperor (the former deposed Emperor of the Southern Song, Liu Ziye) personally led the Yulin guards to attack Wang Yigong and slew him, along with his four sons. He severed the limbs of Wang Yigong, split open his intestines and stomach, plucked out his eyes, and soaked them in honey, calling them &quot;Ghost-Eye Zongzi.&quot;
##: '''Original:''' 帝（南朝宋前废帝刘子业）自帅羽林兵讨（王）义恭，杀之，并其四子。断绝义恭支体，分裂肠胃，挑取眼睛，以蜜渍之，谓之“鬼目粽”。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 130 (《资治通鉴》卷130)
# 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': The barbarian forces pursued and captured Huang Yaoqi; Wang Su recruited men to carve up and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 虏追军获（黄）瑶起，王肃募人脔食其肉。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 57 &quot;Biographies, 38: Wei Barbarians&quot; (《南齐书·卷五十七·列传第三十八·魏虏》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': Wang Chen's brothers, Su and Bing, both fled to Wei; later they captured Huang Yaoqi, carved him up, and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （王）琛弟肃、秉并奔魏，后得黄瑶起脔食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 23 &quot;Biographies, 13: Wang Dan et al.&quot; (《南史·卷二十三·列传第十三·王诞等》)
## 498 CE: Cannibalism of Huang Yaoqi, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Huang Yaoqi was captured by Wei; the Lord of Wei bestowed him upon Wang Su, who carved him up and ate him.
##: '''Original:''' （黄）瑶起为魏所获，魏主以赐王肃，肃脔而食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 141 (《资治通鉴》卷141)
# 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Book of Southern Qi''
#: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang, attacking for forty days. The barbarians' food was exhausted; they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
#: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡堺马圈城，去襄阳三百里，攻之四十日。虏食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Southern Qi|Book of Southern Qi]], Vol. 26 &quot;Biographies, 7: Wang Jingze, Chen Xianda&quot; (《南齐书·卷二十六·列传第七·王敬则 陈显达》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': In the first year of Yongyuan, Chen Xianda supervised General Cui Huijing and forty thousand troops to besiege Maquan City in Nanxiang, three hundred li from Xiangyang. They attacked for forty days; the Wei army's food was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 永元元年，（陈）显达督平北将军崔慧景众军四万，围南乡界马圈城，去襄阳三百里。攻之四十日，魏军食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 35: Wang Jingze et al.&quot; (《南史·卷四十五·列传第三十五·王敬则等》)
## 499 CE: Siege of Maquan City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Chen Xianda fought Wei Yuanying and repeatedly defeated him. He sieged Maquan City for forty days; the food within the city was exhausted, and they ate the flesh of dead men and tree bark.
##: '''Original:''' 陈显达与魏元英战，屡破之。攻马圈城四十日，城中食尽，啖死人肉及树皮。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 142 (《资治通鉴》卷142)
# 502 CE: Aftermath of Sun Wenming's Rebellion, Nan Shi
#: '''English''': At that time, the remnants of the Eastern Tyrant, including Sun Wenming and others, rebelled. Zhang Hongce jumped over a wall to hide in the dragon stables, where he encountered rebels and was thereupon slain. The government army captured Sun Wenming and executed him in the East Market; the kinsmen of the Zhang family carved him up and ate him.
#: '''Original:''' 时东昏余党孙文明等……作乱，……（张）弘策踰垣匿于龙厩，遇贼见害。……官军捕文明斩于东市，张氏亲属脔食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 46: Zhang Hongce et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十六·列传第四十六·张弘策等》)
# 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In the sixth month of the first year of Tianjian, Yuan Qi arrived at Baxi. Ji Lian dispatched his general Li Fengbo to resist, but he was defeated. Ji Lian defended stubbornly, and Yuan Qi besieged him. Within the city, the dead lay pillowed upon one another; moreover, people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 天监元年六月，元起至巴西，（侯）季连遣其将李奉伯拒战，见败。季连固守，元起围之。城中饿死者相枕，又从而相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 13 &quot;Biographies, 3: Imperial Clan of Song and Various Princes&quot; (《南史·卷十三·列传第三·宋宗室及诸王上》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Nan Shi(2)''
##: '''English''': Yuan Qi advanced to camp at Xiping, whereupon Ji Lian began to defend the city. At that time, military chaos in Yizhou had long persisted and people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 元起进屯西平，（侯）季连始婴城自守。时益州兵乱既久，人废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝。季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 55 &quot;Biographies, 45: Wang Mao et al.&quot; (《南史·卷五十五·列传第四十五·王茂等》)
## 502 CE: Siege of Baxi, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Military chaos in the Yizhou region had persisted long and the people abandoned farming; inside and outside there was Great Famine, and people ate each other in great numbers, the roads being severed. Ji Lian's resources were exhausted.
##: '''Original:''' 时益部兵乱日久，民废耕农，内外苦饥，人多相食，道路断绝，季连计穷。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 10 &quot;Biographies, 4: Xiao Yingda et al.&quot; (《梁书·卷十·列传第四·萧颖达等》)
# 503 CE: Famine in Chengdu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Within the city of Chengdu, food was exhausted; a sheng of rice cost three thousand coins. People ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 成都城中食尽，升米三千，人相食。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 145 (《资治通鉴》卷145)
# 525 CE: Execution of Enemies by Xiao Baoyin, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Grand general Xiao Baoyin campaigned in the west; De Guang served as an Attendant of the [[:w:Shangshu Sheng|Imperial Secretariat]], recruiting troops for the expedition. After a victory, he personally slew his enemy with his own sword and ate their liver and lungs.
#: '''Original:''' 大将军萧宝夤西讨，德广为行台郎，募众而征，战捷，乃手刃仇人，啖其肝肺。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 100 &quot;Sequential Biographies, 88&quot; (《北史·卷一百·序传第八十八》)
# 525 CE: Siege of Fenzhou, ''Wei Shu''
#: '''English''': Liu Lisheng, a member of highland Hu, claimed divine arts, and the Hu people believed him and followed him. ...Previously, the government had lent grain to the people, but before it could be collected, there was rebellion. In consequence, the people of Fenzhou suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. The rebels knew the granaries were empty and intensified the siege;  three or four in ten died. Pei Liang, driven by hunger and distress, fled with the city dwellers to Xihe.
#: '''Original:''' 山胡刘蠡升自云圣术，胡人信之，咸相影附，旬日之间，逆徒还振。……先是官粟贷民。未及收聚，仍值寇乱。至是（汾州）城民大饥，人相食。贼知仓库空虚，攻围日甚，死者十三四。（裴）良以饥窘，因与城人奔赴西河。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 69 &quot;Biographies, 57: Cui Xiu et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷六十九·列传第五十七·崔休等》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 41 &quot;Biographies, 29: Yang Bo et al.&quot; (《北史·卷四十一·列传第二十九·杨播等》)
## 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded Yang Yu and thirty-seven subordinate commanders, and ordered the Shu soldiers to cut open their bellies and eat their hearts.
##: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱下统帅三十七人，皆令蜀兵刳腹取心食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 58 &quot;Biographies, 46: Yang Bo&quot; (《魏书·卷五十八·列传第四十六·杨播》)
# 529 CE: Execution of Commanders by Yuan Hao, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Thereupon Yuan Hao beheaded the thirty-seven commanders of Yang Yu's division, and all had their hearts cut out and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' 于是（元颢）斩（杨）昱所部统帅三十七人，皆刳心而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 153 (《资治通鉴》卷153)
## 532 CE: Famine in the North, ''Bei Shi''
##: '''English''': At that time, the years were calamitous and people ate each other in great numbers; Xin showed compassion for the hidden poor and provided much relief.
##: '''Original:''' （北方）于时年凶，人多相食，昕勤恤人隐，多所全济。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 24 &quot;Biographies, 12: Cui Cheng et al.&quot; (《北史·卷二十四·列传第十二·崔逞等》)
# 533 CE: Tyranny of Xiao Zhengde, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': In middle of the fourth year of Datong, Emperor Wu of Liang specially enfeoffed Xiao Zhengde as Prince of Linhe. Later, as Governor of Danyang, he was reported for the prevalence of robbery in his jurisdiction and removed. He was then appointed to Nan-Yanzhou, where he was harsh and oppressive, such that the people could not endure. The fertile lands of Guangling thus became desolate, until people ate each other.
#: '''Original:''' 中大通四年，（梁武帝萧衍）特封（萧正德）临贺郡王。后为丹阳尹，坐所部多劫盗，复为有司所奏，去职。出为南兖州，在任苛刻，人不堪命。广陵沃壤，遂为之荒，至人相食啖。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 51 &quot;Biographies, 41: Imperial Clan of Liang (I)&quot; (《南史·卷五十一·列传第四十一·梁宗室上》)
# 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': This year, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
#: '''Original:''' 是岁，关中大饥，人相食，死者十七八。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 5 &quot;Annals of Wei, 5&quot; (《北史·卷五·魏本纪第五》)
## 536 CE: Famine in Guanzhong, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': In Western Wei, there was Great Famine in Guanzhong; people ate each other, and seven to eight in ten died.
##: '''Original:''' （西）魏关中大饥，人相食，死者什七八。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 157 (《资治通鉴》卷157)
# 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When Hou Jing's supplies from the Shitou Ever-Normal Granaries were exhausted, he plundered the residents; thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other, some even eating their own children. Furthermore, he built earthen mountains without regard for rank, working day and night with indiscriminate beatings; those exhausted and weak were killed to fill the mountains, and the sound of wailing moved heaven and earth.
#: '''Original:''' 景食石头常平仓既尽，便掠居人，尔后米一升七八万钱，人相食，有食其子者。又筑土山，不限贵贱，昼夜不息，乱加殴棰，疲羸者因杀以填山，号哭之声动天地。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Siege of Shitou City, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Once the Ever-Normal Granaries of Shitou were exhausted, Hou Jing's army lacked food; he then allowed soldiers to plunder the people's rice, gold, silk, and children. Thereafter, a sheng of rice cost seventy to eighty thousand coins, and people ate each other; five to six in ten died of hunger.
##: '''Original:''' 石头常平诸仓既尽，（侯景）军中乏食；乃纵士卒掠夺民米及金帛子女。是后米一升直七八万钱，人相食，饿死者什五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 161 (《资治通鉴》卷161)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': The Heir Apparent of Poyang, the Marquis of Yong'an, Yang Yaren, Li Qian-shi, and Fan Wen-jiao led troops across the Huai and broke the outer fences of Hou Jing's eastern government city, camping east of the Qingxi River. Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out, five to six in ten ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 鄱阳世子嗣、永安侯确、羊鸦仁、李迁仕、樊文皎率众度淮，攻破贼（侯景）东府城前栅，遂营于青溪水东。（侯）景遣其仪同宋子仙缘水西立栅以相拒。景食稍尽，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Treacherous Officials&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 548 CE: Hou Jing's Supply Crisis, ''Liang Shu''
##: '''English''': Hou Jing dispatched Song Zixian to occupy the residence of the Prince of Nanping and build fences west of the river to resist. Hou Jing's food gradually ran out; at this time, though there were hundreds of thousands of hu of rice, fifteen to sixteen percent of the people ate each other.
##: '''Original:''' 景遣其仪同宋子仙顿南平王第，缘水西立栅相拒。景食稍尽，至是米斛数十万，人相食者十五六。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': When the rebel Hou Jing first arrived, the city of Jianye could only barely maintain its defense and awaited reinforcements. Soon, communications inside and outside were severed; soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls to sell, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
#: '''Original:''' 贼（侯景）之始至，（建邺）城中才得固守，平荡之事，期望援军。既而中外断绝，……军人屠马于殿省间鬻之，杂以人肉，食者必病。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Wei Shu''
##: '''English''': Within the city, Xiao Yan suffered Great Famine; people ate each other. Rice cost eight hundred thousand per dou; human flesh was mixed with beef and horse meat and sold.
##: '''Original:''' （萧）衍城内大饥，人相食，米一斗八十万，皆以人肉杂牛马而卖之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Wei Shu|Wei Shu]], Vol. 98 &quot;Biographies, 86: Island Barbarians, Xiao Daocheng et al.&quot; (《魏书·卷九十八·列传第八十六·岛夷萧道成等》)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1)
##: '''English''': Soldiers slaughtered horses between the palaces and halls, mixing them with human flesh; those who ate thereof inevitably fell ill.
##: '''Original:''' （梁）军人屠马于殿省间，杂以人肉，食者必病。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
## 549 CE: Siege of Jianye, ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (2)
##: '''English''': Since Hou Jing began his rebellion, the roads of Jiankang were severed. Within a few months, people ate each other, yet still did not escape starvation; of those present, barely one or two in a hundred survived. Nobles and powerful clans gathered wild herbs for themselves; the dead filled the ditches and gullies beyond count.
##: '''Original:''' 自（侯）景作乱，（建康）道路断绝，数月之间，人至相食，犹不免饿死，存者百无一二。贵戚、豪族皆自出采稆，填委沟壑，不可胜纪。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 162 (《资治通鉴》卷162)
# 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': In this month (the seventh), there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
#: '''Original:''' 是月（七月），九江大饥，人相食十四五。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': There was Great Famine in Jiujiang; those who ate each other were fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 九江大饥，人相食者十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
## 549 CE: Famine in Jiujiang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English''': In this year, the Emperor was imprisoned by Hou Jing and passed away. In the seventh month, there was Great Famine in Jiujiang; people ate each other, fourteen or fifteen out of every hundred.
##: '''Original:''' 是年，帝为侯景所幽，崩。七月，九江大饥，人相食十四五。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 21 &quot;Treatises, 16: Astronomy II&quot; (《隋书·卷二十一·志第十六·天文下》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Book of Chen''
#: '''English''': During the chaos of the Liang house, Yao Cha followed his parents back to their village from Jinling. At that time, the eastern lands were ravaged by war and people suffered famine and ate each other; there was nowhere to buy grain. As Yao Cha's family was large, they gathered wild vegetables to sustain themselves.
#: '''Original:''' 值梁室丧乱，（姚察）于金陵随二亲还乡里。时东土兵荒，人饥相食，告籴无处，察家口既多，并采野蔬自给。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Chen|Book of Chen]], Vol. 27 &quot;Biographies, 21: Jiang Zong, Yao Cha&quot; (《陈书· 卷二十七·列传第二十一·江总 姚察》)
# 550 CE: Hou Jing Rebellion, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
#: '''English''': Since the Jin dynasty crossed the river, the Three Wu regions were the most prosperous. When the rebellion of Hou Jing occurred, after gold and silk were exhausted, they plundered people to eat them, or sold them to the northern borders; the survivors were nearly extinct.
#: '''Original:''' 自晋氏度江，三吴最为富庶，贡赋商旅，皆出其地。及侯景之乱，掠金帛既尽，乃掠人而食之，或卖于北境，遗民殆尽矣。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 163 (《资治通鉴》卷163)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Book of Liang''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer, there was Great Famine; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏，大饥，人相食，京师尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Chronicles, 4: Emperor Jianwen&quot; (《梁书·卷四·本纪第四·简文帝》)
## 550 CE: Great Famine of Liang, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': From spring until summer there was a great drought; people ate each other, and it was most severe in the capital.
##: '''Original:''' 自春迄夏大旱，人相食，都下尤甚。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 8 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Liang, 8&quot; (《南史·卷八·梁本纪下第八》)
# 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Hou Jing could not control the situation and fled in a single boat with several confidants. Upon reaching Hudou Isle, he was killed by Yang Kun. His body was sent to Wang Sengbian and his head to the Western Terrace, and the corpse was exposed in the market of Jiankang. The common people scrambled to eat his flesh as if it were butchered meat, and they burned his bones to scatter the ashes.
#: '''Original:''' （侯）景不能制，乃与腹心数十人单舸走...至壶豆洲，前太子舍人羊鲲杀之...曝尸于建康市。百姓争取屠脍啖食，焚骨扬灰。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Nan Shi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing died, Wang Sengbian sent his two hands to Emperor Wenxuan of Qi and sent his head to Jiangling. Five dou of salt were placed in his belly and the body was exposed in the market. The common people scrambled to eat him as meat and soup until all was gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook. Hou Jing's bones were burned and ashes scattered; those who had suffered under him mixed the ashes with wine and drank it.
##: '''Original:''' 及（侯）景死，僧辩截其二手送齐文宣...暴之于市。百姓争取屠脍羹食皆尽，并溧阳主亦预食例。景焚骨扬灰，曾罹其祸者，乃以灰和酒饮之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 80 &quot;Biographies, 70: Traitorous Ministers&quot; (《南史·卷八十·列传第七十·贼臣》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Book of Northern Qi''
##: '''English''': After Hou Jing was beheaded, his corpse was boiled in the market of Jianye. The common people ate him until the flesh was gone and the bones were gnawed. His head was sent to Jingzhou and hung in the capital street.
##: '''Original:''' 既斩侯景，烹尸于建业市，百姓食之，至于肉尽龁骨，传首荆州，悬于都街。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Northern Qi|Book of Northern Qi]], Vol. 45 &quot;Biographies, 37: Wen Yuan&quot; (《北齐书· 卷四十五·列传第三十七·文苑》)
## 552 CE: Execution of Hou Jing, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Wang Sengbian sent Hou Jing's head to Jiangling and cut off his hands to be sent to Qi by Xie Weirui. The corpse was exposed in the market, and soldiers and civilians scrambled to eat it until the bones were gone; the Princess of Liyang also partook.
##: '''Original:''' 僧辩传（侯景）首江陵，截其手，使谢葳蕤送于齐；暴景尸于市，士民争取食之，并骨皆尽；溧阳公主亦预食焉。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 164 (《资治通鉴》卷164)
# 552 CE: Execution of Wang Wei, ''Book of Liang''
#: '''English''': Wang Wei was a man of Chenliu. He drafted Hou Jing's letters and proclamations and plotted the usurpation. When he was imprisoned and sent to Jiangling to be boiled in the market, those who had suffered his cruelty cut and roasted his flesh to eat.
#: '''Original:''' 王伟，陈留人...及囚送江陵，烹于市，百姓有遭其毒者，并割炙食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Book of Liang|Book of Liang]], Vol. 56 &quot;Biographies, 50: Hou Jing&quot; (《梁书·卷五十六·列传第五十·侯景》)
# 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Xiao Yuan said nothing further, only that his plans were mistaken. He was ordered to fast in prison; he gnawed and ate his own arms, and died after thirteen days. The world heard of this and grieved.
#: '''Original:''' （萧）圆照更无所言，唯云计误。并命绝食于狱，齿臂啖之，十三日死，天下闻而悲之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 43: Sons of Emperor Wu of Liang&quot; (《南史·卷五十三·列传第四十三·梁武帝诸子》)
## 553 CE: Death of Xiao Yuan, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': Emperor Yuan (Xiao Yi) ordered Xiao Yuanzheng to fast in prison, until he gnawed his own arm to eat; he died after thirteen days, and those far and near heard of it and grieved.
##: '''Original:''' 上（梁元帝萧绎）并命（萧圆正）绝食于狱，至啮臂啖之，十三日而死，远近闻而悲之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# Customs of Bi Qian, ''Nan Shi''
#: '''English''': Regarding Bi Qian: &quot;The laws of the state punished people by eating their flesh before the King.&quot; &quot;The country did not accept visiting merchants; those who came were killed and eaten.&quot;
#: '''Original:''' 毗骞：“国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。”“国内不受估客，往者亦杀而食之。”
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]] (《南史》)
# 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''History of Northern Dynasties''
#: '''English''': In the first month of spring, Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi defeated the highland Hu. Men aged twelve and above were beheaded; women and children were given as rewards to the army.During this campaign, a governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him. The Emperor ordered his five viscera to be carved out and given to nine men to eat; the flesh and the filth were all consumed. From then on, he practiced such cruelty.
#: '''Original:''' 五年春正月癸丑，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）讨山胡大破之。男子十二已上皆斩，女子及幼弱以赏军。遂平石楼。石楼绝险，自魏代所不能至。于是远近山胡，莫不慑伏。是役也，有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝命刳其五藏，使九人分食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。自是始行威虐。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:History of Northern Dynasties|History of Northern Dynasties]], Vol. 7 &quot;Imperial Chronicles of Qi, 7&quot; (《北史·卷七·齐本纪中第七》)
## 554 CE: Campaign against highland Hu, ''Zizhi Tongjian''
##: '''English''': A governor was wounded in battle, and his squad leader Lu Huili could not save him; Emperor Wenxuan ordered his five viscera to be carved out and commanded nine men to eat them; the flesh and the filth were all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 有都督战伤，其什长路晖礼不能救，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）命刳其五藏，令九人食之，肉及秽恶皆尽。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Zizhi Tongjian|Zizhi Tongjian]], Vol. 165 (《资治通鉴》卷165)
# 555 CE: Siege of Yingcheng, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': Murong Yan was appointed to govern Yingcheng. Hou Shen and Ren Yue joined forces to besiege the city. The inhabitants boiled locust tree leaves, mulberry bark, hemp roots, water smartweed, kudzu, mugwort, and consumed boots, leather belts, tendons, and horns. When people died, they were roasted and divided for food, leaving only the skeletal remains.
#: '''Original:''' 众推（慕容）俨，遂遣镇郢城。……（侯）瑱、（任）约又并力围城。唯煮槐楮叶并纻根、水荭、葛、艾等及靴、皮带、筋角等食之。人死，即火别分食，唯留骸骨。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 41: Wanqi Pu et al.&quot; (《北史·卷五十三·列传第四十一·万俟普等》)
# 555-560 CE: Tyranny of Emperor Wenxuan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English''': After the sixth year of Tianbao, the Emperor became proud of his achievements and acted with extreme cruelty and madness. He placed great cauldrons, long saws, and crushing mortars in the court; should he feel displeased, he would personally butcher and tear victims apart with his own hands, or order his attendants to carve and eat the flesh to satisfy his whims.
#: '''Original:''' 自（天保）六年之后，帝（北齐文宣帝高洋）遂以功业自矜，恣行酷暴，昏狂酗醟，任情喜怒。为大镬、长锯、剉碓之属，并陈于庭，意有不快，则手自屠裂，或命左右脔啖，以逞其意。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Bei Shi'' (1)
#: '''English''': The people of Ryukyu are fond of attacking one another. When two armies meet, the brave leap forward to shout and curse before fighting. If one army is defeated, they flee and send an envoy to apologize to reach peace. They gather and eat those who have died in battle; the skulls are then brought to the King, who grants them a crown, making them a captain. In the southern regions, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
#: '''Original:''' 国人好相攻击，……两军相当，勇者三五人出前跳噪，交言相骂，因相击射。如其不胜，一军皆走，遣人致谢，即共和解。收取斗死者聚食之，仍以髑髅将向王所，王则赐之以冠，便为队帅。……其南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 94 &quot;Biographies, 82: Gao Li et al.&quot; (《北史·卷九十四·列传第八十二·高丽等》)
## Era Unknown: Customs of Ryukyu, ''Sui Shu'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the southern regions of Ryukyu, customs differ slightly: when a person dies, the village eats them together.
##: '''Original:''' 流求国，……南境风俗少异，人有死者，邑里共食之。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]], Vol. 81 &quot;Biographies, 46: Eastern Barbarians&quot; (《隋书·卷八十一·列传第四十六·东夷》)
# Era Unknown: Customs of the Liao, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English''': The Liao are a distinct branch of the Southern Barbarians. Their nature is like that of beasts; in anger, they do not spare their own fathers or sons, killing first those who possess weapons. If they attack to avenge a grudge, they must kill and eat the victim.
#: '''Original:''' 獠者，盖南蛮之别种……性同禽兽，至于忿怒，父子不相避，唯手有兵刃者先杀之。……若报怨相攻击，必杀而食之。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]], Vol. 95 &quot;Biographies, 83: Man and Liao&quot; (《北史·卷九十五·列传第八十三·蛮獠等》)
# Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Liang Shu'' (1)
#: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that criminals be eaten in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
#: '''Original:''' 国法刑罪人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
#: '''Source:''' [[:w:Liang Shu|Liang Shu]], Vol. 54 &quot;Biographies, 48: Various Barbarians&quot; (《梁书·卷五十四·列传第四十八·诸夷》)
## Era Unknown: Kingdom of Piqian, ''Nan Shi'' (2)
##: '''English''': In the Kingdom of Piqian, the law dictates that people be punished by eating their flesh in the presence of the King. The kingdom does not accept foreign merchants; those who enter are killed and eaten, whereby merchants dare not visit.
##: '''Original:''' 国法刑人，并于王前啖其肉。国内不受估客，有往者亦杀而啖之，是以商旅不敢至。
##: '''Source:''' [[:w:Nan Shi|Nan Shi]], Vol. 78 &quot;Biographies, 68: Yi and Mo (Part 1)&quot; (《南史·卷七十八·列传第六十八·夷貊上》)

==隋==
# 590 CE: Rebellion of Wu Shihua, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Wu Shihua of Raozhou raised an army in rebellion; he sliced the county magistrate into pieces and ate his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 饶州吴世华起兵为乱，生脔县令，啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 63 &quot;Biographies, 51: Zhou Huida et al.&quot; (《北史·卷六十三·列传第五十一·周惠达等》)
# 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' (Yang Wutong) and Zhou Fashang campaigned against the rebellious Liao of Jiazhou. The rebels, knowing his army was isolated, arrived in full force. Wutong fought for hundreds of li but was blocked on all sides. Wutong challenged them on horseback, fell from his mount, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
#: '''Original:''' （杨武通）与周法尚讨嘉州叛獠，……贼知其孤军无援，倾部落而至。武通转斗数百里，为贼所拒，四面路绝。武通轻骑挑战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 73 &quot;Biographies, 61: Liang Shiyan et al.&quot; (《北史·卷七十三·列传第六十一·梁士彦等》)
## 581-600 CE: Defeat of Yang Wutong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' (Yang) Wutong engaged in battle on light cavalry, fell from his horse, was captured by the rebels, killed, and eaten.
##: '''Original:''' （杨）武通轻骑接战，坠马，为贼所执，杀而啖之。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 53 &quot;Biographies, 18: Daxixian Changru&quot; (《隋书·卷五十三·列传第十八·达奚长儒》)
# 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messenger Daxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
#: '''Original:''' 郡中士女，号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻大怒，遣使者违奚善意驰锁之（王文同），斩于河间，以谢百姓。仇人剖其棺，脔其肉啖之，斯须咸尽。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 87 &quot;Biographies, 75: Cruel Officials&quot; (《北史·卷八十七·列传第七十五·酷吏》)
## 581-600 CE: Execution of Wang Wentong, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' The men and women of the commandery wailed in the streets and various commanderies were terrified, each reporting the deeds of (Wang Wentong). The Emperor, hearing this, was greatly enraged and dispatched imperial messengerDaxi Shanyi to seize him in chains; he was beheaded at Hejian to appease the people. His enemies sliced open his coffin, carved his flesh, and ate it; in an instant, it was all consumed.
##: '''Original:''' 郡中士女号哭于路，诸郡惊骇，各奏其（王文同）事。帝闻而大怒，遣使者达奚善意驰锁之，斩于河间，以谢百姓，仇人剖其棺，脔其肉而啖之，斯须咸尽。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 74 &quot;Biographies, 39: Cruel Officials&quot; (《隋书·卷七十四·列传第三十九·酷吏》)
# 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Bei Shi''
#: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods; people ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
#: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴；行者不归，居者失业；人饥相食，邑落为墟，上弗之恤也。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Bei Shi|Bei Shi]]'', Vol. 12 &quot;Imperial Annals of Sui, Part 2&quot; (《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》)
## 604-618 CE: Reign of Emperor Yang, ''Sui Shu''
##: '''English:''' Six armies were never at rest and a hundred labors were frequently imposed; those traveling did not return and those residing lost their livelihoods. People ate each other in hunger, villages became ruins, yet the Emperor above showed no compassion.
##: '''Original:''' 六军不息，百役繁兴，行者不归，居者失业。人饥相食，邑落为墟，上不之恤也。
##: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 4 &quot;Imperial Annals, 4: Emperor Yang, Part 2&quot; (《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》)
# 613 CE: Execution of Yang Xuangan, ''Sui Shu''
#: '''English:''' When Yang Xuangan rebelled, the Emperor (Yang Guang) executed him and extended the punishment to his nine branches of kindred. The most severe punishments involved dismemberment [and/or] beheaded with their skulls displayed in public. He ordered the high officials and those below them to carve and eat his flesh.
#: '''Original:''' 及杨玄感反，帝（隋炀帝杨广）诛之，罪及九族。其尤重者，行轘裂枭首之刑。或磔而射之。命公卿已下，脔啖其肉。
#: '''Source:''' ''[[:w:Sui Shu|Sui Shu]]'', Vol. 25 &quot;Treatises, 20: Penal Law&quot; (《隋书·卷二十五·志第二十·刑法》)
#  614年:明年，（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请和，遂送（斛斯）政。锁至京师以告庙，左翊卫大将军宇文述请变常法行刑，帝许之。以出金光门，缚之于柱，公卿百僚，并亲击射。脔其肉，多有啖者，然后烹焚，扬其骨灰。（《北史·卷四十九·列传第三十七·朱瑞等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（隋炀）帝复东征，高丽请降，求执送（斛斯）政。帝许之，遂锁政而还。至京师，以政告庙，左翊卫大将军字文述奏曰：“斛斯政之罪，天地所不容，人神所同忿。若同常刑，贼臣逆子何以惩肃？请变常法。”帝许之。于是将政出金光门，缚政于柱，公卿百僚并亲击射，脔割其肉，多有啖者。啖后烹煮，收其余骨，焚而扬之。（《隋书·卷七十·列传第三十五·杨玄感》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十一月，丙申，杀斛斯政于金光门外，如杨积善之法，仍烹其肉，使百官啖之，佞者或啖之至饱，收其馀骨，焚而扬之。 （《资治通鉴》卷182）&lt;/p&gt;
#   隋炀帝时代（604年-618年在位）后期：民外为盗贼所掠，内为郡县所赋，生计无遗；加之饥馑无食，民始采树皮叶，或捣穢为末，或煮土而食之，诸物皆尽，乃自相食。而官食犹充牣，吏皆畏法，莫敢振救。 （《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;p&gt;相聚雚蒲，猬毛而起。大则跨州连郡，称帝称王；小则千百为群，攻城剽邑。流血成川泽，死人如乱麻；炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《北史·卷十二·隋本纪下第十二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;俄而玄感肇黎阳之乱，匈奴有雁门之围，天子方弃中土，远之扬越。奸宄乘衅，强弱相陵，关梁闭而不通，皇舆往而不反。加之以师旅，因之以饥馑，流离道路，转死沟壑，十八九焉。于是相聚萑蒲，蝟毛而起，大则跨州连郡，称帝称王，小则千百为群，攻城剽邑，流血成川泽，死人如乱麻，炊者不及析骸，食者不遑易子。（《隋书·卷四·帝纪第四·炀帝下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;自燕赵跨于齐韩，江淮入于襄邓，东周洛邑之地，西秦陇山之右，僭伪交侵，盗贼充斥。宫观鞠为茂草，乡亭绝其烟火，人相啖食，十而四五。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时百姓废业，屯集城堡，无以自给。然所在仓库，犹大充爨，吏皆惧法，莫肯赈救，由是益困。初皆剥树皮以食之，渐及于叶，皮叶皆尽，乃煮土或捣稿为末而食之。其后人乃相食。（《隋书·卷二十四·志第十九·食货》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  616: 吏立木于市，悬其（张金称）头，张其手足，令仇家割食之；未死间，歌讴不辍。（《资治通鉴》卷183）
#  617年，大业十三年四月：（薛仁杲）所至多杀人，纳其妻妾。获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于猛火之上，渐割以啖军士。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五·薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝得庾信子立，怒其不降，砾之火，渐割以啖士。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一 薛李二刘高徐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（薛仁杲）尝获庾信子立，怒其不降，磔于火上，稍割以啖军士。”（《资治通鉴》卷183）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: :（屈突）通引兵南遁，置（尧）君素领河东通守。……后颇得江都倾覆消息，又粮尽，男女相食，众心离骇。（《北史·卷八十五·列传第七十三·节义》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时百姓苦隋日久，及逢义举，人有息肩之望。然君素善于统领，下不能叛。岁余，颇得外生口，城中微知江都倾覆。又粮食乏绝，人不聊生，男女相食，众心离骇。（《隋书·卷七十一·列传第三十六·诚节》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隋将尧君素守河东，上遣吕绍宗、韦义节、独孤怀恩相继攻之，俱不下。……久之，仓粟尽，人相食；（《资治通鉴》卷184）&lt;/p&gt;
#  618: （李轨）征兵筑台以候玉女，多所糜费，百姓患之。又属年饥，人相食，轨倾家赈之，私家罄尽，不能周遍。（谢统师等）乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是弱人，勇壮之士终不肯困，国家仓粟须备不虞，岂可散之以供小弱？仆射苟悦人情，殊非国计。”轨以为然，由是士庶怨愤，多欲叛之。（《旧唐书·卷五十五·列传第五 薛举等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;有胡巫妄曰：“上帝将遣玉女从天来。”（李轨）遂召兵筑台以候女，多所糜损。属荐饥，人相食，轨毁家赀赈之，不能给，议发仓粟，曹珍亦劝之。谢统师等故隋官，内不附，每引结群胡排其用事臣，因是欲离沮其众，乃廷诘珍曰：“百姓饥死皆弱不足事者，壮勇士终不肯困。且储禀以备不虞，岂宜妄散惠孱小乎？仆射苟附下，非国计。”轨曰：“善。”乃闭粟。下益怨，多欲叛去。（《新唐书·卷八十六·列传第十一·薛李二刘高徐》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;有胡巫谓（李）轨曰：“上帝当遣玉女自天而降。”轨信之，发民筑台以候玉女，劳费甚广。河右饥，人相食，轨倾家财以赈之；不足，欲发仓粟，召群臣议之。曹珍等皆曰：“国以民为本，岂可爱仓粟而坐视其死乎！”谢统师等皆故隋官，心终不服，密与群胡为党，排轨故人，乃诟珍曰：“百姓饿者自是羸弱，勇壮之士终不至此。国家仓粟以备不虞，岂可散之以饲羸弱！仆射苟悦人情，不为国计，非忠臣也。”轨以为然，由是士民离怨。 （《资治通鉴》卷186）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年：（朱）粲所克州县，皆发其藏粟以充食，迁徙无常，去辄焚余赀，毁城郭，又不务稼穑，以劫掠为业。于是百姓大馁，死者如积，人多相食。军中罄竭，无所虏掠，乃取婴儿蒸而啖之，因令军士曰：“食之美者，宁过于人肉乎！但令他国有人，我何所虑？”即勒所部，有略得妇人小儿皆烹之，分给军士，乃税诸城堡，取小弱男女以益兵粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚因谴左迁，并在南阳，粲悉引之为宾客，后遭饥馁，合家为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷五十六·列传第六·萧铣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;粲所克州县皆发藏粟以食，迁徙无常，去辄燔廥聚，毁城郭，不务稼穑，专以劫为资。于是人大馁，死者系路，其军亦匮，乃掠小儿烝食之。戒其徒曰：“味之珍宁有加人者？弟使佗国有人，我恤无储哉！”勒所部略妇人孺儿分烹之，又税诸城细弱以益粮。隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚谪南阳，粲初引为宾客，后尽食两家。俄而诸城惧，皆逃散。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;朱粲有众二十万，剽掠汉、淮之间，迁徙无常，攻破州县，食其积粟未尽，复他适，将去，悉焚其余资；又不务稼穑，民馁死者如积。粲无可复掠，军中乏食，乃教士卒烹妇人、婴儿啖之，曰：“肉之美者无过于人，但使他国有人，何忧于馁！”隋著作佐郎陆从典、通事舍人颜愍楚，谪官在南阳，粲初引为宾客，其后无食，阖家皆为所啖。愍楚，之推之子也。又税诸城堡细弱以供军食，诸城堡相帅叛之。”（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“隋末荒亂，狂賊[[:w:朱粲|朱粲]]起於襄、鄧間，歲飢，米斛萬錢，亦無得處，人民相食。粲乃驅男女小大仰一大銅鐘，可二百石，煮人肉以矮賊。生靈殲於此矣。”，朱粲竟說：“食之美者，寧過於人肉乎！”（唐·[[:w:張鷟|張鷟]]《朝野僉載》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  619年: （段）确醉，戏（朱）粲曰：“君脍人多矣，若为味？”粲曰：“啖嗜酒人，正似糟豚。”确悸，骂曰：“狂贼，归朝乃一奴耳，复得噬人乎？”粲惧，收确于坐，并从者数十悉饔之，以飨左右。遂屠菊潭，奔王世充，署龙骧大将军。东都平，斩洛水上。士庶竞掷瓦砾击其尸，须臾若冢。（《新唐书·卷八十七·列传第十二·萧辅沈李梁》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（段确）乘醉侮（朱）粲曰：“闻卿好啖人，人作何味？”粲曰：“啖醉人正如糟藏彘肉。”确怒，骂曰：“狂贼入朝，为一头奴耳，复得啖人乎！”粲于座收确及从者数十人，悉烹之，以啖左右。（《资治通鉴》卷187）&lt;/p&gt;
#  隋末的[[:w:诸葛昂|诸葛昂]]與[[:w:高瓒|高瓒]]嗜食人肉。高瓒將双胞胎小孩杀掉，頭顱、手和腳分別裝在盤子裏，做成“双子宴”，與诸葛昂一起享用；诸葛昂则把自己的爱妾蒸熟，擺成盤腿打坐的姿勢，臉上重新塗好脂粉，諸葛昂親手撕她大腿上的肉請高瓒吃。（《[[:w:唐人说荟|唐人说荟]]》卷五，引张骞《耳目记》）

==唐==
安史之乱期间，张巡固守城池，城中人相食，张巡杀妾以飨将士，对于张巡以食人为代价的守土之功是否应该奖励，出现了一次伦理学的辩论，历代不息，《柏杨白话版资治通鉴》收集了若干历史上争论的意见。

黄巢之乱的时候，几支反叛军队成规模地常规性地以人为食，黄巢军“掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰‘舂磨寨’”，秦宗权军“啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从”，李罕之军“不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮”。真是惨烈之甚。

唐朝陈藏器写的《本草拾遗》写人肉可以治病，这应该不是他的发明，而只是民间认知的一种总结，可能只是太多不得已的饥荒食人造成一种认知扭曲，但又反过来理性化了食人，到宋朝的时候，割肉疗亲开始出现。

#   621年，[[:w:唐高祖|唐高祖]]武德四年：（王）世充屯兵不散，仓粟日尽，城中人相食。或握土置瓮中，用水淘汰，沙石沉下，取其上浮泥，投以米屑，作饼饵而食之，人皆体肿而脚弱，枕倚于道路。其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆死于沟壑。（《旧唐书·卷五十四·列传第四 王世充 窦建德》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;王（李世民）傅城，堑而守之。（王）世充粮且尽，人相食，至以水汨泥去砾，取浮土糅米屑为饼。民病肿股弱，相藉倚道上，其尚书郎卢君业、郭子高等皆饿死。御史大夫郑颋丐为浮屠，世充恶其言，杀之。（《新唐书·卷八十五·列传第十 王窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#621年: （单雄信）临将就戮，（李世）勣对之号恸，割股肉以啖之，曰：“生死永诀，此肉同归于土矣。”（《旧唐书·卷六十七·列传第十七·李靖等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李世勣）乃割股肉以啖（单）雄信，曰：“使此肉随兄为土，庶几犹不负昔誓也！”（《资治通鉴》卷189）&lt;/p&gt;
#   627年: （王）君操密袖白刃刺杀之（杀父仇人李君则），刳腹取其心肝，啖食立尽，诣刺史具自陈告。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   643年，[[:w:唐太宗|唐太宗]]贞观十七年: 贞观末，（刘兰）以谋反腰斩。右骁卫大将军丘行恭探其心肝而食之，太宗闻而召行恭让之曰：“典刑自有常科，何至于此！必若食逆者心肝而为忠孝，则刘兰之心为太子诸王所食，岂至卿邪？”行恭无以答。（《旧唐书·卷六十九·列传第十九·侯君集等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;鄠尉[[:w:游文芝|游文芝]]告代州都督[[:w:劉蘭成|劉蘭成]]谋反，戊申，兰成坐[[:w:腰斩|腰斩]]。右武候将军[[:w:丘行恭|丘行恭]]，探兰成心肝食之。上（唐太宗）闻而让之曰：兰成谋反，国有常刑，何至如此！若以为忠孝，则太子诸王先食之矣，岂至卿耶？行恭惭而拜谢。（《资治通鉴》卷196）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约650年：周智寿者，雍州同官人。其父永徽初被族人安吉所害。智寿及弟智爽乃候安吉于途，击杀之。兄弟相率归罪于县，争为谋首，官司经数年不能决。乡人或证智爽先谋，竟伏诛。临刑神色自若，顾谓市人曰：“父仇已报，死亦何恨！”智寿顿绝衢路，流血遍体。又收智爽尸，舐取智爽血，食之皆尽，见者莫不伤焉。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十八·列传第一百三十八·孝友》㉕*）
#   662年: （郑）仁泰选骑万四千卷甲驰，绝大漠，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽还。人饥相食，比入塞，余兵才二十之一。（《新唐书·卷一百一十一·列传第三十六·郭二张三王苏薛程唐》㉕*)&lt;p&gt;（郑）仁泰将轻骑万四千，倍道赴之，遂逾大碛，至仙萼河，不见虏，粮尽而还。值大雪，士卒饥冻，弃捐甲兵，杀马食之，马尽，人自相食，比入塞，馀兵才八百人。（《资治通鉴》卷200）&lt;/p&gt;
#   682年，[[:w:唐高宗|唐高宗]]永淳元年：关中先水后早蝗，继以疾疫，米斗四百，两京间死者相枕于路，人相食。”（《资治通鉴》卷203）&lt;p&gt;六月，关中初雨，麦苗涝损，后旱，京兆、岐、陇螟蝗食苗并尽，加以民多疫疠，死者枕藉于路，诏所在官司埋瘗。京师人相食，寇盗纵横。（《旧唐书·卷五本纪第五·高宗下》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳中，为雍州长史。时关中大饥，人相食，盗贼纵横。（《旧唐书·卷七十五·列传第二十五·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是月，大蝗，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三·本纪第三·高宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;永淳元年，关中及山南州二十六饥，京师人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（良嗣）徙雍州。时关内饥，人相食，良嗣政上严，每盗发，三日内必擒，号称神明。（《新唐书·卷一百三·列传第二十八·苏世长等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约684年: 王友贞，怀州河内人也。父知敬，则天时麟台少监，以工书知名。友贞弱冠时，母病笃，医言唯啖人肉乃差。友贞独念无可求治，乃割股肉以饴亲，母病寻差。则天闻之，令就其家验问，特加旌表。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百四十二·隐逸》㉕*）
#   [[:w:武則天|武則天]]時期，杭州臨安縣尉薛震好吃人肉，“有債主及奴詣臨安，于客舍，遂飲之醉。殺而臠之，以水銀和煎，并骨消盡。后又欲食其婦，婦覺而遁。縣令詰得其情，申州，錄事奏，奉敕杖殺之。”（《[[:w:朝野僉載|朝野僉載]]》）
#   武則天時期，“周岭南首陳元光設客，令一袍褲行酒。光怒，令曳出，遂殺之。須臾爛煮，以食諸客。后呈其二手，客懼，攫喉而吐。”（出《摭言》。明抄本作出《朝野僉載》）
#   697年: 丁卯，（李）昭德、（来）俊臣同弃市，时人无不痛昭德而快俊臣。仇家争啖俊臣之肉，斯须而尽，抉眼剥面，披腹出心，腾蹋成泥。（《资治通鉴》卷206）
#   张鷟《[[s:朝野僉載_(四庫全書本)/卷2|朝野佥载]]》卷二：“后诛易之昌宗等，百姓脔割其肉，肥白如猪肪，煎炙而食。”
#   唐玄宗開元中葉人[[:w:陳藏器|陳藏器]]（713年－741年）《[[:w:本草拾遺|本草拾遺]]》寫吃人肉可以治病。
#   739年: 内给事牛仙童使幽州，受张守珪厚赂。玄宗怒，命思勖杀之。思勖缚架之数日，乃探取其心，截去手足，割肉而啖之，其残酷如此。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十四·列传第一百三十四·宦官》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 内给事牛仙童纳张守珪赂，诏付思勖杀之。思勖缚于格，箠惨不可胜，乃探心，截手足，剔肉以食，肉尽乃得死。（《新唐书·卷二百七·列传第一百三十二·宦者上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;739年: 上（唐玄宗李隆基）怒，甲戌，命杨思勖杖杀之（牛仙童）。思勖缚格，杖之数百，刳取其心，割其肉啖之。（《资治通鉴》卷214）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: （鲁）炅城中食尽，煮牛皮筋角而食之，米斗至四五十千，有价无米，鼠一头至四百文，饿死者相枕藉。……炅在围中一年，救兵不至，昼夜苦战，人相食。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（鲁）炅被围凡一年，昼夜战，人至相食，卒无救。（《新唐书·卷一百四十七·列传第七十二·三王鲁辛冯三李曲二卢》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   757年: 尹子奇攻围（睢阳）既久，城中粮尽，易子而食，析骸而爨，人心危恐，虑将有变。（张）巡乃出其妾，对三军杀之，以飨军士。曰：“诸公为国家戮力守城，一心无二，经年乏食，忠义不衰。巡不能自割肌肤，以啖将士，岂可惜此妇，坐视危迫。”将士皆泣下，不忍食，巡强令食之。乃括城中妇人；既尽，以男夫老小继之，所食人口二三万，人心终不离变。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十七下·列传第一百三十七·忠义下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）巡士多饿死，存者皆痍伤气乏。巡出爱妾曰：“诸君经年乏食，而忠义不少衰，吾恨不割肌以啖众，宁惜一妾而坐视士饥？”乃杀以大飨，坐者皆泣。巡强令食之，远亦杀奴僮以哺卒，至罗雀掘鼠，煮铠弩以食。……被围久，初杀马食，既尽，而及妇人老弱凡食三万口。人知将死，而莫有畔者。城破，遣民止四百而已。 （《新唐书·卷一百九十二·列传第一百一十七·忠义中》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;（张巡守睢阳，）茶纸既尽，遂食马；马尽，罗雀掘鼠；雀鼠又尽，巡出爱妾，杀以食士，远亦杀其奴；然后括城中妇人食之；既尽，继以男子老弱。人知必死，莫有叛者，所馀才四百人。 （《资治通鉴》卷220）&lt;/p&gt;
#   758年: 明年，改乾元元年，伪德州刺史王暕、贝州刺史宇文宽等皆归顺，河北诸军各以城守累月，贼使蔡希德、安太清急击，复陷于贼，虏之以归，脔食其肉。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）
#   759年: 二年正月，史思明自率范阳精卒复陷魏州，乃伪称燕王。王师虽众，军无统帅，进退无所承禀，自冬徂春，竟未破贼，但引漳水以灌其城，城中食尽，易子而食。（《旧唐书·卷一百二十·列传第七十·郭子仪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; （安）庆绪自十月被围至二月，城中人相食，米斗钱七万余，鼠一头直数千，马食隤墙麦鞬及马粪濯而饲之。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（郭子仪军）连营进围相州，引漳水灌城，漫二时，不能破。城中粮尽，人相食。庆绪求救于史思明。（《新唐书·卷一百三十七·列传第六十二·郭子仪》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 乾元元年秋九月，帝诏郭子仪率九节度兵凡二十万讨庆绪，攻卫州，……王师围已固，筑浚城隍三周，决安阳水灌城。城中栈而处，粮尽，易口以食，米斗钱七万余，一鼠钱数千，屑松饲马，隤墙取麦秸，濯粪取刍，城中欲降不得。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   760年: 有纳赂于上言求官者，（吕）諲补之蓝田尉。五月，上言事泄笞死，以其肉令从官食之，諲坐贬太子宾客。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十五下·列传第一百三十五·良吏下》㉕*）
#   760年:   三品钱行浸久，属岁荒，米斗至七千钱，人相食。 （《资治通鉴》卷221）
#   760年: 时大雾，自四月雨至闰月末不止。米价翔贵，人相食，饿死者委骸于路。（《旧唐书·卷十·本纪第十·肃宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时自四月初大雾大雨，至闰四月末方止。是月，逆贼史思明再陷东都，米价踊贵，斗至八百文，人相食，殍尸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十六·志第十六·天文下》㉕） &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;乾元三年闰四月，大雾，大雨月余。是月，史思明再陷东都，京师米斗八百文，人相食，殍骸蔽地。（《旧唐书·卷三十七·志第十七·五行》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   761年: 时洛阳四面数百里，人相食，州县为墟。（《旧唐书·卷二百上·列传第一百五十·安禄山等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 朝义虚怀礼下，事皆决大臣，然无经略才。当此时，洛阳诸郡人相食，城邑榛墟，（《新唐书·卷二百二十五上·列传第一百五十上·逆臣上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  [[:w:唐代宗|唐代宗]]廣德元年（763年），江東大疫，“死者過半”，[[:w:獨孤及|獨孤及]]描述這次的災難：“辛丑歲（762年），大旱，三吳飢甚，人相食。明年大疫，死者十七八，城郭邑居為之空虛，而存者無食，亡者無棺殯悲哀之送。大抵雖其父母妻子也啖其肉，而棄其骸於田野，由是道路積骨相支撐枕藉者彌二千里，春秋以來不書。”（《吊道殣文》）&lt;p&gt;江、淮大饥，人相食。（《资治通鉴》卷222）&lt;/p&gt;
#   [[:w:白居易|白居易]]（772年－846年）寫《輕肥》一詩有“是歲江南旱，衢州人食人。”
#   [[:w:張茂昭|張茂昭]]為節鎮，頻吃人肉，及除統軍，到京。班中有人問曰：聞尚書在鎮好人肉，虛實？” 昭笑曰：“人肉腥而且肕，爭堪吃。”（《盧氏雜記》）
#   766年: 监军张志斌自陕入奏，（周）智光馆给礼慢，志斌责其不肃。智光大怒曰：“仆固怀恩岂有反状！皆由尔鼠辈作福作威，惧死不敢入朝。我本不反，今为尔作之。”因叱下斩之，脔其肉以饲从者。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十四·列传第六十四·鲁炅等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（周智光）叱下斩之（张志斌），脔食其肉。（《资治通鉴》卷224）&lt;/p&gt;
#   775年:承嗣既令（田）廷玠（或作田庭玠）守沧州，而（李）宝臣、朱滔兵攻击，欲兼其土宇。廷玠婴城固守，连年受敌，兵尽食竭，人易子而食，卒无叛者，卒能保全城守。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十一·列传第九十一·田承嗣等》㉕*）
#   796年: 军士又呼曰：“仓官刘叔何给纳有奸。”杀而食之。（《资治通鉴》卷235）
#   799年: 是日，汴州军乱，杀陆长源及节度判官孟叔度、丘颖，军人脔而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十三·本纪第十三·德宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;兵士怨怒滋甚，乃执长源及叔度等脔而食之，斯须骨肉糜散。（《旧唐书·卷一百四十五·列传第九十五·刘玄佐等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;才八日，军乱，杀长源及叔度等，食其肉，放兵大掠。（《新唐书·卷一百五十一·列传第七十六·关董袁赵窦》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是日，军士作乱，杀（陆）长源、（孟）叔度，脔食之，立尽。（《资治通鉴》卷235）&lt;/p&gt;
#   803年: 盐夏节度判官崔文先权知盐州，为政苛刻。冬，闰十月，庚戌，部将李庭俊作乱，杀而脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷236）
#   807年: 锜不自安，亦请入朝，乃拜锜左仆射。锜乃署判官王澹为留后。既而迁延发期，澹与中使频喻之，不悦，遂讽将士以给冬衣日杀澹而食之。监军使闻乱，遣衙将赵锜慰喻，又脔食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百一十二·列传第六十二·李暠等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;会使者召锜，称疾，留后王澹为具行，锜怒，阴教士脔食之，即胁使者为众奏天子，幸得留。（《新唐书·卷一百八十一·列传第一百六·陈夷行等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;807: （李）锜严兵坐幄中，（王）澹与敕使入谒，有军士数百噪于庭曰：“王澹何人，擅主军务！”曳下，脔食之；大将赵琦出慰止，又脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷237）&lt;/p&gt;
#   817年: 蔡将有李端者，过溵河降重胤。其妻为贼束缚于树，脔食至死，将绝，犹呼其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”（《旧唐书·卷一百六十一·列传第一百一十一·李光进等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;李湍妻。湍，吴元济之军人也。元和中，淮南未平，湍心怀向顺，乃急渡溵河，东降乌重胤。其妻遂为贼束缚在树，脔而食之，至死，叫其夫曰：“善事乌仆射。”观者义之。至是，重胤以其事请列史册。十三年，宪宗下诏从之。（《旧唐书·卷一百九十四上·列传第一百四十四上·突厥上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;李湍妻某氏。湍籍吴元济军，元和中，自拔归鸟重胤，妻为贼缚而脔食之，将死，犹号湍曰：“善事鸟仆射！”观者叹泣。重胤请以其事属史官，诏可。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   822年: （王）播至淮南，属岁旱俭，人相啖食，课最不充，设法掊敛，比屋嗟怨。（《旧唐书·卷一百六十四·列传第一百一十四·王播等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 是时，南方旱歉，人相食，（王）播掊敛不少衰，民皆怨之。（《新唐书·卷一百六十七·列传第九十二·白裴崔韦二李皇甫王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   829年: 属岁旱俭，人至相食，楚均富赡贫，而无流亡者。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）
#   832年:（李）听先遣亲吏至徐州慰劳将士，苍头不欲听复来，说军士杀其亲吏，脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷244）
#   约841年: （杜牧）作《罪言》。其辞曰：……. 山东叛且三五世，后生所见言语举止，无非叛也，以为事理正当如此，沉酣入骨髓，无以为非者，至有围急食尽，啖尸以战。以此为俗，岂可与决一胜一负哉？（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕*）
#   868年: 其年冬，庞勋杀崔彦曾，据徐州，聚众六七万。徐无兵食，乃分遣贼帅攻剽淮南诸郡，滁、和、楚、寿继陷。谷食既尽，淮南之民多为贼所啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 勋还，果盗徐州，其众六七万。徐乏食，分兵攻滁、和、楚、寿，陷之，粮尽，啖人以饱。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 一日，贼军乘间，步骑径入湘垒，淮卒五千人皆被生絷送徐州，为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷一百七十二·列传第一百二十二·令狐楚等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;湘乃彻警释械，日与勋众欢言。后贼乘间直袭湘垒，悉俘而食之，醢湘及监军郗厚本。（《新唐书·卷一百六十六·列传第九十一·贾杜令狐》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   868年: 庞勋又令将刘贽攻濠州，陷之，囚刺史卢望回于回车馆，望回郁愤而死，仆妾数人皆为贼蒸而食之。（《旧唐书·卷十九上·本纪第十九上·懿宗》㉕*）
#   869年: 吴迥守濠州，粮尽食人，驱女孺运薪塞隍，并填之，整旅而行，马士举斩以献。（《新唐书·卷一百四十八·列传第七十三·令狐张康李刘田王牛史》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;马举攻濠州，自夏及冬不克，城中粮尽，杀人而食之（《资治通鉴》卷251）&lt;/p&gt;
#   876年：李廷节妻崔。乾符中，廷节为郏城尉。王仙芝攻汝州，廷节被执。贼见崔妹美，将妻之，诟曰：“我，士人妻，死亡有命，奈何受贼污？”贼怒，刳其心食之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   878年: （李）尽忠械文楚等五人送斗鸡台下，（李）克用令军士玼食之，以骑践其骸。（《资治通鉴》卷253）
#   881年，[[:w:唐僖宗|唐僖宗]]廣明二年：（[[:w:黃巢|黃巢]]攻佔長安，）時京畿百姓皆寨于山谷，累年費耕耘，賊坐空城，賦輸無如，谷食騰踴，米斗三十錢，官軍皆執山寨百姓，蠰于賊為食，人獲數十萬”（《[[:w:舊唐書|舊唐書]]·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 二年春正月甲辰朔，天下勤王之师，云会京畿，京师食尽。贼食树皮，以金玉买人于行营之师，人获数百万。山谷避乱百姓，多为诸军之所执卖。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;于时畿民栅山谷自保，不得耕，米斗钱三十千，屑树皮以食，有执栅民鬻贼以为粮，人获数十万钱。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下·逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;民避乱皆入深山筑栅自保，农事俱废，长安城中斗米直三十缗。贼（黄巢）卖人于官军以为粮，官军或执山栅之民鬻之，人直数百缗，以肥瘠论价。（《资治通鉴》卷254）&lt;/p&gt;
#  883年，唐僖宗中和三年883年：时黄巢与宗权合从，纵兵四掠，远近皆罹其酷。时仍岁大饥，民无积聚，贼俘人为食，其炮炙处谓之“舂磨寨”，白骨山积，丧乱之极，无甚于斯。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下 僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;贼（黄巢）围陈郡百日，关东仍岁无耕稼，人饿倚墙壁间，贼俘人而食，日杀数千。贼有舂磨砦，为巨碓数百，生纳人于臼碎之，合骨而食，其流毒若是。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十 朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;巢已东，使孟楷攻蔡州。节度使秦宗权迎战，大败，即臣贼，与连和。楷击陈州，败死，巢自围之，略邓、许、孟、洛，东入徐、兖数十州。人大饥，倚死墙堑，贼俘以食，日数千人，乃办列百巨碓，糜骨皮于臼，并啖之。（《新唐书·卷二百二十五下·列传第一百五十下 逆臣下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，陈州四面，贼寨相望，驱掳编氓，杀以充食，号为“舂磨寨”。（《旧五代史·卷一（梁书）·太祖纪一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;秦宗权以蔡州附巢，巢势甚盛，乃悉众围犨，置舂磨，糜人之肉以为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时民间无积聚，贼（黄巢）掠人为粮，生投于碓硙，并骨食之，号给粮之处曰“舂磨寨”。纵兵四掠，自河南、许、汝、唐、邓、孟、郑、汴、曹、濮、徐、兖等数十州，咸被其毒。 （《资治通鉴》卷255）&lt;/p&gt;
#   884年: （秦宗权）所至屠翦焚荡，殆无孑遗。其残暴又甚于巢，军行未始转粮，车载盐尸以从。北至卫、滑，西及关辅，东尽青、齐，南出江、淮，州镇存者仅保一城，极目千里，无复烟火。（《资治通鉴》卷256）&lt;p&gt; 巢贼虽平，而宗权之凶徒大集，西至金、商、陕、虢，南极荆、襄，东过淮甸，北侵徐、兖、汴、郑，幅员数十州。五六年间，民无耕织，千室之邑，不存一二，岁既凶荒，皆脍人而食，丧乱之酷，未之前闻。（《旧唐书·卷二十上·本纪第二十上·昭宗》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（秦宗权）贼首皆慓锐惨毒，所至屠残人物，燔烧郡邑。西至关内，东极青、齐，南出江淮，北至卫滑，鱼烂鸟散，人烟断绝，荆榛蔽野。贼既乏食，啖人为储，军士四出，则盐尸而从。（《旧唐书·卷二百下·列传第一百五十·朱泚 黄巢 秦宗权》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 中和二年，关内大饥。四年，关内大饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五 稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;中和四年，江南大旱，饥，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·常旸》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: 荆南、襄阳仍岁蝗旱，米斗三十千，人多相食。（《旧唐书·卷十九下·本纪第十九下·僖宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt; 光启二年二月，荆、襄大饥，米斗三千钱，人相食。（《新唐书·卷三十五·志第二十五·稼穑不成》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;二年，荆、襄蝗、米斗钱三千，人相食；（《新唐书·卷三十六·志第二十六·五行三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   886年: （张）瑰固垒二岁，樵苏皆尽，米斗钱四十千，计抔而食，号为“通肠”。疫死者，争啖其尸，县首于户以备馔。（《新唐书·卷一百八十六·列传第一百一十一 ·周王邓陈齐赵二杨顾》㉕*）
#   887年: 戊午，秦彦遣毕师铎、秦稠将兵八千出（扬州）城，西击杨行密。稠败死，士卒死者什七八。城中乏食，樵采路绝，宣州军始食之。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;p&gt;五月，寿州刺史杨行密率兵攻（秦）彦，……重围半年，（扬州）城中刍粮并尽，草根木实、市肆药物、皮囊革带，食之亦尽。外军掠人而卖，人五十千。死者十六七，纵存者鬼形鸟面，气息奄然。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;杨行密围扬州，毕师铎厚赍宝币，啖（杜）雄连和。雄率军浮海屯东塘。是时扬州围久，皮囊革带食无余，军中杀人代粮，才千钱。（《新唐书·卷一百九十·列传第一百一十五·三刘成杜钟张王》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;是时，城中仓廪空虚，饥民相杀而食，其夫妇、父子自相牵，就屠卖之，屠者刲剔如羊豕。（《新五代史·卷六十一·吴世家第一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: （高）骈家属并在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，薪蒸亦阙。奴仆彻延和阁栏槛煮革带食之，互相篡啖。（《旧唐书·卷一百八十二·列传第一百三十二·王重荣等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;高骈在道院，秦彦供给甚薄，左右无食，至然木像、煮革带食之，有相啖者。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年，光启三年：（杨）行密攻围（广陵）弥急，城中食尽，米斗四十千，居人相啖略尽。十月，城陷，秦、毕走东塘，行密入广陵，辇外寨之粟以食饥民，即日米价减至三千。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十四·僭伪列传一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;[[:w:杨行密|杨行密]]围广陵且半年，秦彦、毕师铎大小数十战多不利，城中无食，料值钱五十缗，草根木实皆尽，以堇泥为饼食之，饿死者大半。宣州军掠人诣肆卖之，驱缚屠割如羊豕，讫无一声，流血满于坊市。彦、师铎无如之何，颦蹙而已。（《资治通鉴》卷257）&lt;/p&gt;
#   887年: 周迪妻某氏。迪善贾，往来广陵。会毕师铎乱，人相掠卖以食。迪饥将绝，妻曰：“今欲归，不两全。君亲在，不可并死，愿见卖以济君行。”迪不忍，妻固与诣肆，售得数千钱以奉。迪至城门，守者谁何，疑其绐，与迪至肆问状，见妻首已在枅矣。迪里余体归葬之。（《新唐书·卷二百五·列传第一百三十·列女》㉕*）
#   888年: （李）罕之与（张）言甚笃，然性猜暴。是时大乱后，野无遗秆，部卒日剽人以食。《新唐书·卷一百八十七·列传第一百一十二·二王诸葛李孟》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时大乱之后，野无耕稼，罕之部下以俘剽为资，啖人作食。……自是罕之日以兵寇钞怀、孟、晋、绛，数百里内，郡邑无长吏，闾里无居民。……自是数州之民，屠啖殆尽，荆棘蔽野，烟火断绝，凡十余年。（《旧五代史·卷十五（梁书）·列传五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;罕之留其子颀事晋，乃之泽州，日以兵钞怀、孟间，啖人为食。（《新五代史·卷四十二·杂传第三十·朱宣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（李）罕之勇而无谋，性复贪暴，意轻（张）全义，闻其勤俭力穑，笑曰：“此田舍一夫耳！”…….（李）罕之所部不耕稼，专以剽掠为资，啖人为粮。……（李罕之）以寇钞为事，自怀、孟、晋、绛数百里间，州无刺史，县无令长，田无麦禾，邑无烟火者，殆将十年。（《资治通鉴》）&lt;/p&gt;
#   889年，[[:w:唐昭宗|唐昭宗]]龍紀元年：楊行密圍宣州，城中食盡，人相啖……（《資治通鑒》卷258）
#   891年: 会吏盗减诸军禀食，（王）建怒其众曰：“招讨吏之谋也。”纵士执之，醢食于军。（《新唐书·卷二百二十四下·列传第一百四十九下·叛臣下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;一日，（王）建阴令军士于行府门外擒（韦）昭度亲吏，脔而食之，（王）建徐启（韦）昭度曰：“盖军士乏食，以至于是耶！”昭度大惧，遂留符节与建，即日东还。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十六·僭伪列传三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;昭度迟疑未决，建遣军士擒昭度亲吏于军门，脔而食之，建入白曰：“军士饥，须此为食尔！”昭度大恐，即留符节与建而东。（《新五代史·卷六十三·前蜀世家第三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;庚子，（王）建阴令东川将唐友通等擒（韦）昭度亲吏骆保于行府门，脔食之，云其盗军粮。（《资治通鉴》卷258）&lt;/p&gt;
#   891年: 孙儒悉焚扬州庐舍，尽驱丁壮及妇女渡江，杀老弱以充食。（《资治通鉴》卷258）
#   893年: 景福二年春，（李克用）大举以伐王镕，……王镕出师三万来援，武皇（李克用）逆战于叱日岭下，镇人败，斩首万余级。时岁饥，军乏食，脯尸肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷二十六（唐书）·武皇纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李克用的）河东军无食。脯其尸而啖之。 （《资治通鉴》卷259）&lt;/p&gt;
#   894年: 王建攻彭州，城中人相食（《资治通鉴》卷259）
#   902年，唐昭宗天复二年：是冬，大雪，（凤翔）城中食尽，冻馁死者不可胜计，或卧未死，肉已为人所。市中卖人肉斤直钱百，犬肉值五百。”（《资治通鉴》卷263）&lt;p&gt;昭宗在凤翔，为梁兵所围，城中人相食，父食其子，而天子食粥，六宫及宗室多饿死。其穷至于如此，遂以亡。（《新唐书·卷五十二·志第四十二·食货二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（朱温的后）梁军围之（凤翔）逾年，（李）茂贞每战辄败，闭壁不敢出。城中薪食俱尽，自冬涉春，雨雪不止，民冻饿死者日以千数。米斗直钱七千，至烧人屎煮尸而食。父自食其子，人有争其肉者，曰：“此吾子也，汝安得而食之！”人肉斤直钱百，狗肉斤直钱五百。父甘食其子，而人肉贱于狗。天子于宫中设小磨，遣宫人自屑豆麦以供御，自后宫、诸王十六宅，冻馁而死者日三四。城中人相与邀遮茂贞，求路以为生。（《新五代史·卷四十·杂传第二十八·李茂贞等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;

==五代十國==
#   906年:天祐三年，（朱）全忠自将攻沧州，……全忠环沧筑而沟之，内外援绝，人相食。（刘）仁恭求战，不许。（《新唐书· 卷二百一十二·列传第一百三十七·藩镇卢龙》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;汴人深沟高垒以攻沧州，内外阻绝，（刘）仁恭不能合战，城中大饥，人相篡啖，析骸而爨，丸土而食，转死骨立者十之六七。……城中乏食，米斗直三万，人首一级亦直十千，军士食人，百姓食墐土，驴马相遇，食其鬃尾，士人出入，多为强者屠杀。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;梁军壁长芦，深沟高垒，（刘）仁恭不能近。沧州被围百余日，城中食尽，人自相食，析骸而爨，或丸墐土而食，死者十六七。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;时汴军筑垒围沧州，鸟鼠不能通。（刘）仁恭畏其强，不敢战。城中食尽，丸土而食，或互相掠啖。（《资治通鉴》卷265）&lt;/p&gt;
#   909年:（刘）守文将吏孙鹤、吕兖等，立守文子延祚以距（刘）守光，守光围之百余日，城中食尽，米斛直钱三万，人相杀而食，或食墐土，马相食其骏尾，（吕）兖等率城中饥民食以麹，号“宰务”，日杀以饷军。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;刘守光围沧州久不下，执刘守文至城下示之，犹固守。城中食尽，民食堇泥，军士食人，驴马相啖尾。吕兖选男女羸弱者，饲以黮面而烹之，以给军食，谓之宰杀务。 （《资治通鉴》卷267）&lt;/p&gt;
#  911: （刘）守光大怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割其肉生啖之。鹤大呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵矣！”守光命窒其口，寸斩之，有识为之嗟惋。（《旧五代史·卷一百三十五·僭伪列传二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，推之（孙鹤）伏锧，令军士割而啖之。（《新五代史·卷三十九·杂传第二十七·王镕等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（刘）守光怒，伏诸质上，令军士剐而啖之。鹤呼曰：“百日之外，必有急兵！”守光命以土窒其口，寸斩之。（《资治通鉴》卷268）&lt;/p&gt;
#  916: 晋人围贝州逾年，城中食尽，啖人为粮。（《资治通鉴》卷269）
#   922年: （李存勖）获（张）处球、处瑾、处琪并其母，及同恶高濛李翥、齐俭等，皆折足送行台，镇人请醢而食之；（《旧五代史·卷二十九（唐书）·庄宗纪三》㉕*）
#  925年，後唐莊宗同光三年： （郭）崇韬欲诛（王）宗弼以自明，己巳，白（李）继岌收宗弼及王宗勋、王宗渥，皆数其不忠之罪，族诛之，籍没其家。蜀人争食宗弼之肉。 （《资治通鉴》卷274）
#   929年: （董璋）遣其将李彦钊扼剑门关为七砦，于关北增置关，号永定。凡唐戍兵东归者，皆遮留之，获其逃者，覆以铁笼，火炙之，或刲肉钉面，割心而啖。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）
#  930: （董）璋怒，令军士十人，持刀刲割其（姚洪）肤，燃镬于前，自取啖食，洪至死大骂不已。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其肉而食，洪至死大骂。（《新五代史·卷三十三·死事传第二十》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（董）璋怒，然镬于前，令壮士十人刲其（姚洪）肉自啖之，洪至死骂不绝声。（《资治通鉴》卷277）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约930年:（李）赞华好饮人血，姬妾多刺臂以吮之；婢仆小过，或抉目，或刀刲火灼；夏氏不忍其残，奏离婚为尼。 （《资治通鉴》卷277）
#  934: （薛）文杰善数术，自占云：“过三日可无患。”送者闻之，疾驰二日而至，军士踊跃，磔文杰于市，闽人争以瓦石投之，脔食立尽。（《新五代史·卷六十八·闽世家第八》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（薛）文杰出，（王）继鹏伺之于启圣门外，以笏击之仆地，槛车送军前，市人争持瓦砾击之。文杰善术数，自云过三日则无患。部送者闻之，倍道兼行，二日而至，士卒见之踊跃，脔食之（《资治通鉴》卷278）&lt;/p&gt;
#   约942年: （石）信所至黩货，好行杀戮。军士有犯法者，信召其妻子，对之刲剔支解，使自食其肉，血流盈前，信命乐饮酒自如也。（《新五代史·卷十八·汉家人传第六》㉕*）
#   944年: 同（州）、华（州）奏，人民相食。（《旧五代史·卷七十（唐书）·列传二十二》㉕*）
#   944年: （后晋少帝石重贵）命李守贞、符彦卿率师东讨。（杨）光远素无兵众，惟婴城（青州）自守，守贞以长连城围之。冬十一月，（杨）承勋与弟承信、承祚见城中人民相食将尽，知事不济，劝（杨）光远乞降，冀免于赤族。（《旧五代史·卷九十七（晋书）·列传十二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;契丹已北，出帝（石重贵）复遣（李守贞、符彦卿东讨，光远婴城固守，自夏至冬，城中人相食几尽。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  945年: 闽人或告福州援兵谋叛，闽主（王）延政收其铠仗，遣还，伏兵于隘，尽杀之，死者八千馀人，脯其肉以归为食。 （《资治通鉴》卷284）
#  947年: （杨）承勋事晋为郑州防御使，（耶律）德光灭晋，使人召承勋至京师，责其劫父，脔而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十一·杂传第三十九·朱守殷等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戊子，（辽军）执郑州防御使杨承勋至大梁，责以杀父叛契丹，命左右脔食之。（《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  947年，后晋天福十二年（947年：大同元年春正月……己丑，以张彦泽擅徙重贵开封，杀桑维翰，纵兵大掠，不道，斩于市。晋人脔食之。（《辽史· 卷四·本纪第四·太宗下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;戎王（辽太宗耶律德光）知其（张彦泽）众怒，遂令弃市，仍令高勋监决，断腕出锁，然后刑之。勋使人剖其心以祭死者，市人争其肉而食之。（《旧五代史·卷九十八（晋书）·列传十三》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;百官皆请不赦（张彦泽），而都人争投状疏其恶，乃命高勋监杀之。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆缞绖杖哭，随而诟詈，以杖朴之，彦泽俯首无一言。行至北市，断腕出锁，然后用刑，勋剖其心祭死者，市人争破其脑，取其髓，脔其肉而食之。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;己丑，斩（张）彦泽、（傅）住皃于北市，仍命高勋监刑。彦泽前所杀士大夫子孙，皆绖杖号哭，随而诟詈，以杖扑之。勋命断腕出锁，剖其心以祭死者。市人争破其脑取髓，脔其肉而食之。 （《资治通鉴》卷286）&lt;/p&gt;
#  948年: （苏）逢吉等秘不发丧，下诏称：“（杜）重威父子，因朕小疾，谤议摇众，皆斩之。”磔死于市，市人争啖其肉。（《旧五代史·卷一百（汉书）·高祖纪下》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;磔（杜）重威尸于市，市人争啖其肉，吏不能禁，斯须而尽。 （《资治通鉴》卷287）&lt;/p&gt;
#   948年: （李）守贞自谓天时人事合符于己，乃潜结草贼，令所在窃发，遣兵据潼关。朝廷命白文珂、常思等领兵问罪，复遣枢密使郭威西征。……既而城中粮尽，杀人为食。（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（李）守贞（潼关）城中兵无几，而食又尽，杀人而食。（《新五代史·卷五十二·杂传第四十·杜重威等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  949年，後漢高祖乾佑元年二年：（赵）思绾粮尽，城中人相食（宋）（《宋史· 卷二百五十二·列传第十一·王景等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;朝廷闻之，命郭从义、王峻帅师伐之（赵思绾）。及攻其城（长安），王师伤者甚众，乃以长堑围之。经年粮尽，遂杀人充食。思绾尝对众取人胆以酒吞之，告众曰：“吞此至一千，即胆气无敌矣。”（《太平广记》：贼臣赵思绾自倡乱至败，凡食人肝六十六，无不面剖而脍之。）（《旧五代史·卷一百九（汉书）·列传六》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;隐帝（后汉隐帝刘承祐）遣郭威西督诸将兵，先围（李）守贞于河中。居数月，（赵）思绾城中食尽，杀人而食，每犒宴，杀人数百，庖宰一如羊豕。思绾取其胆以酒吞之，语其下曰：“食胆至千，则勇无敌矣！” （《新五代史·卷五十三·杂传第四十一·王景崇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;赵思绾好食人肝，常面剖而脍之，脍尽，人犹未死。又好以酒吞人胆，谓人曰：吞此千数，则胆无敌矣。长安城中食尽，取妇女幼稚为军粮，日计数而给之。每犒军，辄屠数百人，如羊豖法。（《资治通鉴》卷288）&lt;/p&gt;
#  950年: （马希萼）脔食李弘皋、（李）弘节、唐昭胤、杨涤。（《资治通鉴》）
#   苌从简（后唐、后晋武将），陈州人也。……好食人肉，所至多潜捕民间小儿以食。（《新五代史·卷四十七·杂传第三十五·华温琪等》㉕*）
#  [[:w:吴国 (五代十国)|吳國]]將領[[:w:高澧|高澧]]「嗜殺人而飲血，日暮，必於宅前，後掠行人而食之」。（《南村辍耕录》引《九国志》）

==辽宋金==
从《宋史》开始，二十五史开始频繁记载割肉疗亲的尽孝的故事，这反映了儒家伦理和人肉治病理念的普及，宋朝官方是褒奖这种做法的，之后元朝法律禁止，明清官方态度有所保留，但屡禁不止，愈演愈烈。

* 冠冕百行莫大于孝，范防百为莫大于义。先王兴孝以教民厚，民用不薄；兴义以教民睦，民用不争。率天下而由孝义，非履信思顺之世乎。太祖、太宗以来，子有复父仇而杀人者，壮而释之；刲股割肝，咸见褒赏；至于数世同居，辄复其家。一百余年，孝义所感，醴泉、甘露、芝草、异木之瑞，史不绝书，宋之教化有足观者矣。作《孝义传》。《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》

岳飞《满江红》的“壮志饥餐胡虏肉，笑谈渴饮匈奴血”可能是大众文化中最广泛流传的称赞吃人的文学作品。

#  辽穆宗时期（951年-969年）：初，女巫肖古上延年药方，当用男子胆和之。不数年，杀人甚多，至是（957年，应历七年），觉其妄，辛巳，射杀之。（《辽史·卷六·本纪第六·穆宗上》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;京师置百尺牢以处系囚。盖其（辽穆宗）即位未久，惑女巫肖古之言，取人胆合延年药，故杀人颇众。后悟其诈，以鸣镝丛射、骑践杀之。（《辽史·卷六十一·志第三十·刑法志上》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   963年: 众皆感愤，遂破其众于平津亭，擒（张）文表脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百八十三·列传第二百四十二·世家六》㉕*）
#  963年乾德元年：（李）处耘释所俘体肥者数十人，令左右分啖之，黥其少健者，令先入朗州。 （《宋史· 卷二百五十七·列传第十六· 吴廷祚等》㉕*）
#  969年，開寶二年（969）：[[:w:王彥昇|王彥昇]]改防州防御使，是冬，又移原州（甘肅鎮原）。 西人（甘肅少數民族）有犯漢法者，彥升不加刑，召僚屬飲宴，引所犯，以手捽斷其耳，大嚼，巵酒下之。其人流血被體，股栗不敢動。前後啗者數百人。西人畏之，不敢犯塞。（[[:w:王辟之|王辟之]]《澠水燕談錄》，《宋史·卷二百五十·列传第九·王彥昇》㉕*）
#  970年，开宝三年：命分司西京。（王）继勋残暴愈甚，强市民家子女备给使，小不如意，即杀食之，而棺其骨弃野外。……长寿寺僧广惠常与继勋同食人肉，令折其胫而斩之。洛民称快。（《宋史· 卷四百六十三·列传第二百二十二·外戚上》㉕*）
#  1006年: 三年，（德恭）被疾，子承庆刲股肉食之。（《宋史· 卷二百四十四·列传第三·宗室一》㉕*）
#  1048年，[[:w:宋仁宗|宋仁宗]]庆历八年：明年，河北大饥，人相食，（子）鼎经营赈救，颇尽力。（《宋史·卷三百·列传第五十九·杨偕等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;河北、京東西大水為災，人相食，流民入京東者不可勝數（《[[:w:續資治通鑑|續資治通鑑]]》卷50）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1053年，宋仁宗时期：[[:w:侬智高|（侬）智高]]母[[:w:阿侬|阿侬]]有计谋，智高攻陷城邑，多用其策，僭号皇太后，性惨毒，嗜小儿肉，每食必杀小儿。（《宋史· 卷四百九十五·列传第二百五十四·蛮夷三》㉕*） 
#  1087年，[[:w:宋哲宗|宋哲宗]]元祐二年，[[:w:苏辙|苏辙]]《因旱乞许群臣面对言事剳子》：“臣伏见二年以来，民气未和，天意未顺，災沴荐至，非水即旱。淮南饥饉，人至相食。河北流移，道路不绝。京东困弊，盗贼群起。二圣遇災忧惧，顷发仓廪以救其乏绝，独此三路所散，已仅三百万斛矣！異时赈賉未见此比。然而民力已困，国用己竭，而旱势未止，夏麦失望，秋稼未立，数月之后，公私无继，群盗蜂起，势有必至，臣未知朝廷何以待此？……”
#  1102年: （高永年）行三十里，逢羌帐下亲兵，皆永年昔所推纳熟户也。永年不之备，羌遽执永年以叛，遂为多罗巴所杀，探其心肝食之，谓其下曰：“此人夺我国，使吾宗族漂落无处所，不可不杀也。”（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1118年，辽天庆八年（宋重和元年，1118年），十二月，“宁昌军（治懿州）节度使刘宏（无可考）以懿州（治宁昌，今阜新市东北之塔营子村）户三千降金。时山前诸路（此指辽东，非燕山之南）大饥，乾（辽宁北镇南）显（北镇北）宜（义县）锦（锦州市）兴中（朝阳市）等路，斗粟值数缣，民削榆皮食之，既而人相食。”（《辽史· 卷二十八·本纪第二十八·天祚皇帝二》㉕*）
#  1121年: 贼（霍成富）怒，脔其（詹良臣）肉，使自啖之。良臣吐且骂，至死不绝声，见者掩面流涕，时年七十二。（《宋史· 卷四百四十六·列传第二百五·忠义一》㉕*）
#  “甲辰宣和六年（1124年）时转粮给燕山（府治北京西南）民力疲困，重以盐额科敛，加之连年凶荒，民食榆皮野菜不给，至自相食。于是饥民并起为盗。山东有张万仙者，众十万，号敢炽。张迪者，众五万，围濬州（濬州，平川军，治滑州黎阳）五日而去。濬州去京纔一百六十里，而初不知。河北有高托山者，号三十万。其余一二万者，不可胜计也。”（《九朝编年备要卷二十九》）
#  [[:w:宋徽宗|宋徽宗]]宣和七年（1125年）十二月，金两路攻宋。王禀皆破之，“然人众乏粮，三军先食牛马骡，次烹弓弩皮甲，百姓煮萍实、糠籺、草茭以充腹，既而人相食。[九月]城破，禀犹率羸卒巷战，突围出，金兵追之急，遂负太原庙中太宗御容赴汾水死，子荀殉之。”（《续资治通鉴卷九十七》）
#  1125年: 刘敏行，平州人。登天会三年进士。除太子校书郎，累迁肥乡令。岁大饥，盗贼掠人为食。诸县老弱入保郡城，不敢耕种，农事废，畎亩荒芜。（《金史· 卷一百二十八·列传第六十六·循吏》㉕*）
#  1129年：（建炎）三年，山东郡国大饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1131年: 有孙知微者，以朝请大夫通判舒州。绍兴元年，贼刘忠入其境，执知微以去，知微不屈，忠怒，脔而食之。（《宋史· 卷四百五十三·列传第二百一十二·忠义八》㉕*）
#  1131年：五湖捕鱼人夏宁聚众千余，掠人为食，郭仲威余党出没淮南，邵青据通州，光世皆招降之。（《宋史·卷三百六十九·列传第一百二十八·张俊》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;五湖捕魚人夏寧，“聚其徒為盜，後有眾千餘，專掠人以為食，……寧等無食，半月之間復啖萬餘人，是日，始具舟迎之。由是江北鄉村愈覺凋殘矣。”（《续资治通鉴卷一零九》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  约1133年，宋高宗紹興三年：唐初，贼朱粲以人为粮，置捣磨寨，谓“啖醉人如食糟豚”。每览前史，为之伤叹。而自靖康丙午岁，金人乱华，六七年间，山东、京西、淮南等路，荆榛千里，斗米至数十千，且不可得。盗贼、官兵以至居民，更互相食。人肉之价，贱于犬豕，肥壮者一枚不过十五千，全躯暴以为腊。登州范温率忠义之人，绍兴癸丑岁泛海到钱唐，有持至行在犹食者。老瘦男子 词谓之“饶把火”，妇人少艾者名为“不羡羊”，小儿呼为“和骨烂”，又通目为“两脚羊”。唐止朱粲一军，今百倍于前世，杀戮焚溺饥饿疾疫陪堕，其死已众，又加之以相食。杜少陵谓“丧乱死多门”，信矣！不意老眼亲见此时，呜呼痛哉！ （莊綽《雞肋編》）
#  [[:w:宋宁宗|宋宁宗]]嘉定年間，[[:w:林千之|林千之]]任西欽州知州，得了一种病（末疾），有個醫士告訴他，吃童女的肉可以強筋健骨。于是，林千之派人在本州境內捕少女，制成肉乾，叫做“地雞”。&lt;ref&gt;王永寬《中國古代酷刑》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1210年:（嘉定）三年春，建康府大飢，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1215年: 此數人者（李全等造反者），出沒島崓，寶貨山委而不得食，相率食人。（《宋史· 卷四百七十六·列傳第二百三十五·叛臣中》㉕*）
#  1215年: 乙亥，中都降。（王）檝进言曰：“国家以仁义取天下，不可失信于民，宜禁虏掠，以慰民望。”时城中绝粒，人相食，乃许军士给粮，入城转粜，故士得金帛，而民获粒食。（《元史· 卷一百五十三·列传第四十·刘敏等》㉕*）
#  1216: 是春，河朔人相食。（《金史· 卷二十三·志第四·五行》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;四年，河北行省侯摯言：“河北人相食，觀、滄等州鬥米銀十餘兩。（《金史· 卷五十·志第三十一·食貨五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;金人迁汴，河朔盗起，……太师、国王木华黎兵至城下，……是时兵乱，民废农耕，所在人相食。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1216年: 邸顺，保定行唐人，岁甲戌，（邸顺）率众来归（元），（元）太祖授行唐令。……丙子，真定饥，群盗据城叛，民皆穴地以避之，盗发地而啖其人，顺擒数百人杀之。（《元史· 卷一百五十一·列传第三十八·薛塔剌海等》㉕*）
#  1224: 十一月……壬子，京城人相食。癸醜，詔曹門、宋門放士民出就食。（《金史· 卷十八·本紀第十八·哀宗下》㉕*）
#  1227年: 时（李）全在围一年，食牛马及人且尽，将自食其军。初军民数十万，至是余数千矣。（《宋史· 卷四百七十七·列传第二百三十六·叛臣下》㉕*）
#  1228年: （完颜）白撒辈纵军四出，剽掠俘虏，挑掘焚炙，靡所不至。哭声相接，尸骸盈野。都尉高禄谦、苗用秀辈仍掠人食之，而白撒诛斩在口，所过官吏残虐不胜，一饭之费有数十金不能给者，公私皇皇，日皆徯大兵至矣。（《金史· 卷一百十三·列传第五十一·完颜赛不等》㉕*）
#  1232年: 时汴京内外不通，米升银二两。百姓粮尽，殍者相望，缙绅士女多行乞于市，至有自食其妻子者，至于诸皮器物皆煮食之，贵家第宅、市楼肆馆皆撤以爨。（《金史· 卷一百十五·列传第五十三·完颜奴申等》㉕*）
#  1233年，绍定六年（1233年）：（南宋大将[[:w:史嵩之|史嵩之]]围唐州，）城中粮尽，人相食，金将乌库哩黑汉，杀其爱妾以啖士，士争杀其妻子（《金史· 卷一百二十三·列传第六十一·忠义三》㉕*，《续资治通鉴·宋纪》）&lt;p&gt;乙酉，大元召宋兵攻唐州，元帅右监军乌古论黑汉死于战，主帅蒲察某为部曲兵所食。城破，宋人求食人者尽戮之，余无所犯。（《金史· 卷十八·本纪第十八·哀宗下》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1233: 国用安，先名安用，本名咬儿，淄州人。红袄贼杨安儿、李全余党也。……移兵攻徐，（国）用安投水死，求得其尸，剖面系马尾，为怨家田福一军脔食而尽。（《金史· 卷一百十七·列传第五十五·徒单益都等》㉕*）
#  1234年: 端平元年正月辛丑，黑气压（蔡州）城上，日无光，降者言：“城中绝粮已三月，鞍靴败鼓皆糜煮，且听以老弱互食，诸军日以人畜骨和芹泥食之，又往往斩败军全队，拘其肉以食，故欲降者众。”（《宋史· 卷四百一十二·列传第一百七十一·孟珙》㉕*）
#  1234年:甲午，蔡州破，金主自焚死。时汴梁受兵日久，岁饥，人相食，速不台下令纵其民北渡以就食。（《元史· 卷一百二十一·列传第八·速不台》㉕*）
#  约1237: 岁大饥，人相食，留守别之杰讳不诘，（徐）鹿卿命掩捕食人者，尸诸市。（《宋史· 卷四百二十四·列传第一百八十三·陆持之》㉕*）
#  1272年:咸淳七年，江南大饥。八年冬，襄阳饥，人相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）
#  1276: 德祐二年正月，扬州饥。三月，扬州谷价腾踊，民相食。（《宋史· 卷六十七·志第二十·五行五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;阿术攻扬（州）久不拔，乃筑长围困之。冬，城中食尽，死者满道。明年二月，饥益甚，赴濠水死者日数百，道有死者，众争割啖之立尽。……兵有烹子而食者，犹日出苦战。（《宋史·卷四百二十一·列传第一百八十·杨栋等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1277: 十一月，泸州食尽，人相食，遂破之，安抚王世昌自经死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十一·列传第二百一十·忠义六》㉕*）
#  益州双流人周善敏，丧父，庐于墓侧。母病，又割股肉以啖之，遂愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  杨庆，鄞人。父病，贫不能召医，乃刲股肉啖之，良已。其后母病不能食，庆取右乳焚之，以灰和药进焉，入口遂差，久之乳复生。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  （伊）审征幼以孝闻，母病，割股肉啖之。（《宋史· 卷四百七十九·列传第二百三十八·世家二》㉕*）
#  刘孝忠，并州太原人。母病经三年，孝忠割股肉、断左乳以食母；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  吕升，莱州人。父权失明，剖腹探肝以救父疾，父复能视而升不死。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  成象，渠州流江人。以诗书训授里中，事父母以孝闻。母病，割股肉食之，诏赐束帛醪酒。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  庞天祐，江陵人。以经籍教授里中。父疾，天祐割股肉食之；（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  张伯威，大安军人。……大母黄，年九十八，不忍之官。黄得血痢疾濒殆，伯威剔左臂肉食之，遂愈。继母杨因姑病笃，惊而成疾，伯威复剔臂肉作粥以进，其疾亦愈。伯威妹嫁崔均，其姑王疾，妹亦剔左臂肉作粥以进，达旦即愈。（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  母病，（奎）辄割股肉和药以进，母遂愈。（《宋史· 卷三百二十四·列传第八十三·石普》㉕*）
#  （张）掞幼笃孝，蕴病，刲股肉以疗。（《宋史· 卷三百三十三·列传第九十二·杨佐等》㉕*）
#  （常）真妻病，子晏割股肉以养母（《宋史· 卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#  有朱云孙妻刘氏，姑病，云孙刲股肉作糜以进而愈。姑复病，刘亦刲股以进，又愈。尚书谢谔为赋《孝妇诗》。（《宋史· 卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）
#  聂孝女，字舜英，尚书左右司员外郎天骥之长女也。……崔立劫杀宰相，天骥被创甚，日夜悲泣，恨不即死。舜英谒医救疗百方，至刲其股杂他肉以进，而天骥竟死。时京城围久食尽，……葬其父之明日，绝脰而死。一时士女贤之，有为泣下者。（《金史· 卷一百三十·列传第六十八·列女》㉕*）
#   呼延赞，并州太原人。……其子尝病，赞刲股为羹疗之。（《宋史·卷二百七十九·列传第三十八· 王继忠等》㉕*）
#   蒋偕，字齐贤，华州郑县人。幼贫，有立志。父病，尝刲股以疗，父愈，诘之曰：“此岂孝邪？”曰：“情之所感，实不自知也。”（《宋史·卷三百二十六·列传第八十五·景泰等》㉕*）
#   邑人朱氏女刲股愈母疾，人颂传之，以为治化所致。（《宋史·卷三百四十八·列传第一百七·傅楫等》㉕*）
#   甲幼孤多难，母病，刲股以进。（《宋史·卷三百九十七·列传第一百五十六·徐谊等》㉕*）
#   赵葵，字南仲，京湖制置使方之子。……葵母疾，谒告省侍不得，刲股杂药以寄之。母卒，葵求解官，不许，不得已，卒哭复视事。（《宋史·卷四百一十七·列传第一百七十六·乔行简等》㉕*）
#   陈宗，永嘉人。年十六，母蔡病笃，刲股为饵，病愈。已而复病不救，宗一恸而绝。（《宋史·卷四百五十六·列传第二百一十五·孝义》㉕*）
#   吕仲洙女，名良子，泉州晋江人。父得疾濒殆，女焚香祝天，请以身代，刲股为粥以进。（《宋史·卷四百六十·列传第二百一十九·列女》㉕*）

==元==
元朝法律禁止割肉疗亲，“诸为子行孝，辄以割肝、刲股、埋儿之属为孝者，并禁止之。（《元史· 卷一百五·志第五十三·刑法四》）”但《元史》记载了诸多此般事迹，可见屡禁不止，可能也反映了蒙汉的文化差异。

#   1262年:（中统三年），五月庚申，筑环城（济南）围之；甲戌，围合。（李）鋋自是不得复出，……分军就食民家，发其盖藏以继，不足，则家赋之盐，令以人为食。（《元史·卷二百六·列传第九十三·叛臣》㉕*）
#   1301: 行省右丞刘深远征八百媳妇国，此乃得已而不已之兵也。彼荒裔小邦，远在云南之西南又数千里，……深欺上罔下，帅兵伐之，经过八番，纵横自恣，恃其威力，虐害居民，中途变生，所在皆叛。深既不能制乱，反为乱众所制，军中乏粮，人自相食，（《元史·卷一百六十八·列传第五十五·陈祐（天祥）等》㉕*）
#   1308年:（至大元年六月）河南、山东大饥，有父食其子者，以两道没入赃钞赈之。（《元史· 卷二十二·本纪第二十二·武宗一》㉕*）
#  1319年:延佑六年秋七月丙辰，“来安路总管岑世兴叛，据唐兴州”，杀兼州知州[[:w:黄克仁|黄克仁]]，分食其尸。&lt;ref&gt;《新元史·卷二百四十八·列传第一百四十五》；《招捕总录》&lt;/ref&gt;
#   约1329年: 贼稍引去，（褚不华）乃出，抵杨村桥，贼奄至，杀廉访副使不达失里，啖其尸。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   约1329年: （褚）不华以余兵入淮安。……城中饿者仆道上，即取啖之，一切草木、螺蛤、鱼蛙、燕乌，及靴皮、鞍韂、革箱、败弓之筋皆尽，而后父子夫妇老稚更相食，撤屋为薪，人多露处，坊陌生荆棘。力既尽，城陷。（《元史· 卷一百九十四·列传第八十一·忠义二》㉕*）
#   1328年: （天历元年十二月）陕西自泰定二年至是岁不雨，大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷三十二·本纪第三十二·文宗一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;天历元年八月，陕西大旱，人相食。（《元史· 卷五十·志第三上·五行一》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329年: 天历二年，关中大旱，饥民相食。（《元史· 卷一百七十五·列传第六十二·张珪等》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;文宗天历二年三月，屯田总管兼管河渠司事郭嘉议言：“……近因奉元亢旱，五载失稔，人皆相食，流移疫死者十七八。”（《元史· 卷六十五·志第十七上·河渠二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;天历二年，（乃蛮台）迁陕西行省平章政事。关中大饥，……京兆民掠人而食之，则命分健卒为队，捕强食人者，其患乃已。（《元史· 卷一百三十九·列传第二十六·乃蛮台等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1329:（天历二年夏四月）丙辰，行在所遣只儿哈郎等至京师。河南廉访司言：“河南府路以兵、旱民饥，食人肉事觉者五十一人，饿死者千九百五十人，饥者一万七千四百余人。乞弛山林川泽之禁，听民采食，行入粟补官之令，及括江淮僧道余粮以赈。”（《元史· 卷三十三·本纪第三十三·文宗二》㉕*）
#   1338年: 重改至元四年，…. 贼怒，缚景茂于树，脔其肉，使自啖。景茂益愤骂，贼遂以刀决其口，至耳傍，景茂骂不绝声而死。（《元史· 卷一百九十三·列传第八十·忠义一》㉕*）
#   1342年: 二年春正月…..，是月，大同饥，人相食，运京师粮赈之。（《元史· 卷四十·本纪第四十·顺帝三》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;至正二年，彰德、大同二郡及冀宁平晋、榆次、徐沟县，汾州孝义县，忻州皆大旱，自春至秋不雨，人有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1343年: （至正）三年，卫辉、冀宁、忻州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: （至正四年）六月，河南巩县大雨，伊、洛水溢，漂民居数百家。济宁路兖州，汴梁鄢陵、通许、陈留、临颍等县大水害稼，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1344年: 八月戊午，祭社稷。丁卯，山东霖雨，民饥相食，赈之。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;1344年:（至正四年）八月，益都霖雨，饥民有相食者。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1345年: 五年春，东平路须城、东阿、阳谷三县及徐州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1347: 六月，……彰德路大饥，民相食。（《元史· 卷四十一·本纪第四十一·顺帝四》㉕*）
#   1348: 刘秉直，字清臣，大都武清人。至正八年，来为卫辉路总管，……岁大饥，人相食，死者过半，秉直出俸米，倡富民分粟，馁者食之，病者与药，死者与棺以葬。（《元史· 卷一百九十二·列传第七十九·良吏二》㉕*）
#   1349年: （至正）九年春，胶州大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#  [[:w:元惠宗|元惠宗]]至正年间，大饑，“淮右军”軍隊開始吃人，“天下兵甲方殷，而淮右之軍嗜食人，以小兒為上，婦女次之，男子又次之。或使坐兩缸間，外逼以火。或於鐵架上生炙。或縛其手足，先用沸湯澆潑，卻以竹帚刷去苦皮。或盛夾袋中，入巨鍋活煮。或卦作事件而淹之。或男子則止斷其雙腿，婦女則特剜其雙乳。酷毒萬狀，不可具言。總名曰「想肉」，以為食之而使人想之也。”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=南村輟耕錄 (四部叢刊本)/卷之九 - 維基文庫，自由的圖書館|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E5%8D%97%E6%9D%91%E8%BC%9F%E8%80%95%E9%8C%84_(%E5%9B%9B%E9%83%A8%E5%8F%A2%E5%88%8A%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%9D|website=zh.wikisource.org|access-date=2024-05-28|language=zh-Hant}}&lt;/ref&gt;
#   1352年: （至正）十二年，蕲州、黄州大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1353年: 至正十二年，……明年，春夏大饥，人相食，（余阙）乃捐俸为粥以食之，得活者甚众。（《元史· 卷一百四十三·列传第三十·马祖常等》㉕*）
#   1354年: （至正）十四年，怀庆河内县、孟州，汴梁祥符县，福建泉州，湖南永州、宝庆，广西梧州皆大旱。祥符旱魃再见，泉州种不入土，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1354年: 十四年春，浙东台州，江东饶，闽海福州、邵武、汀州，江西龙兴、建昌、吉安、临江，广西静江等郡皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1355: 京师大饥，加以疫疠，民有父子相食者。（《元史· 卷四十三·本纪第四十三·顺帝六》㉕*）
#   1358年: 十八年春，莒州蒙阴县大饥，斗米金一斤。冬，京师大饥，人相食，彰德、山东亦如之。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: （至正）十八年春，蓟州旱。莒州、滨州、般阳淄川县、霍州、鄜州、凤翔岐山县春夏皆大旱。莒州家人自相食，岐山人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1358年: 顺德九县民食蝗，广平人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: （至正）十九年，大都霸州、通州，真定，彰德，怀庆，东昌，卫辉，河间之临邑，东平之须城、东阿、阳谷三县，山东益都、临淄二县，潍州、胶州、博兴州，大同、冀宁二郡，文水、榆次、寿阳、徐沟四县，沂、汾二州，及孝义、平遥、介休三县，晋宁潞州及壶关、潞城、襄垣三县，霍州赵城、灵石二县，隰之永和，沁之武乡，辽之榆社、奉元，及汴梁之祥符、原武、鄢陵、扶沟、杞、尉氏、洧川七县，郑之荥阳、汜水，许之长葛、郾城、襄城、临颍，钧之新郑、密县，皆蝗，食禾稼草木俱尽，所至蔽日，碍人马不能行，填坑堑皆盈。饥民捕蝗以为食，或曝干而积之。又罄，则人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   十九年正月至五月，京师大饥，银一锭得米仅八斗，死者无算。通州民刘五杀其子而食之。保定路莩死盈道，军士掠孱弱以为食。济南及益都之高苑，莒之蒙阴，河南之孟津、新安、黾池等县皆大饥，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   1359年: 十八年二月，江西陈友谅遣贼党王奉国等，号二十万，寇信州。明年正月，伯颜不花的斤自衢引兵援焉。……时军民唯食草苗茶纸，既尽，括靴底煮食之，又尽，掘鼠罗雀，及杀老弱以食。五月，大破贼兵。（《元史· 卷一百九十五·列传第八十二·忠义三》㉕*）
#   1360: 至正二十年，（丁好礼）遂拜中书参知政事。时京师大饥，天寿节，庙堂欲用故事大宴会，好礼言：“今民父子有相食者，君臣当修省，以弭大患，燕会宜减常度。”不听，乞谢事，乃以集贤大学士致仕，给全俸家居。（《元史· 卷一百九十六·列传第八十三·忠义四》㉕*）
#   1360年: 李仲义妻刘氏，名翠哥，房山人。至正二十年，县大饥，平章刘哈剌不花兵乏食，执仲义欲烹之。仲义弟马儿走报刘氏，刘氏遽往救之，涕泣伏地，告于兵曰：“所执者是吾夫也，乞矜怜之，贷其生，吾家有酱一瓮、米一斗五升，窖于地中，可掘取之，以代吾夫。”兵不从，刘氏曰：“吾夫瘦小，不可食。吾闻妇人肥黑者味美，吾肥且黑，愿就烹以代夫死。”兵遂释其夫而烹刘氏。闻者莫不哀之。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）
#   1362年:（至正）二十二年，河南洛阳、孟津、偃师三县大旱，人相食。（《元史·卷五十一·志第三下·五行二》㉕*）
#   萧道寿，京兆兴平人。……母尝有疾，医累岁不能疗，道寿刲股肉啖之而愈。至元八年，赐羊酒，表其门。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   宁猪狗，山丹州人。母年七十余，患风疾，药饵不效，猪狗割股肉进啖，遂愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   潭州万户移剌琼子李家奴，九岁，母病，医言不可治，李家奴割股肉，煮糜以进，病乃痊。抚州路总管管如林、浑州民朱天祥，并以母疾刲割股，旌其家。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   孔全，亳州鹿邑人。父成病，刲股肉啖之，愈。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   赵荣，扶风人。母强氏有疾，荣割股肉啖之者三。（《元史·卷一百九十七·列传第八十四·孝友一》㉕*）
#   胡伴侣，钧州密县人。其父实尝患心疾数月，几死，更数医俱莫能疗。伴侣乃斋沐焚香，泣告于天，以所佩小刀于右胁傍刲其皮肤，割脂一片，煎药以进，父疾遂瘳，其伤亦旋愈。朝廷旌表其门。（《元史· 卷一百九十八·列传第八十五·孝友二》㉕*）
#   郎氏，湖州安吉人，宋进士朱甲妻也。……家居，养姑甚谨。姑尝病，郎祷天，刲股肉进啖而愈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   许氏女，安丰人。父疾，割股啖之乃痊。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   秦氏二女，河南宜阳人，逸其名。父尝有危疾，医云不可攻。姊闭户默祷，凿己脑和药进饮，遂愈。父后复病欲绝，妹刲股肉置粥中，父小啜即苏。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   张义妇，济南邹平人，年十八归里人李伍。……张独家居，养舅姑甚至。父母舅姑病，凡四刲股肉救不懈。（《元史·卷二百·列传第八十七·列女一》㉕*）
#   武用妻苏氏，真定人，徙家京师。用疾，苏氏刲股为粥以进，疾即愈。（《元史· 卷二百一·列传第八十八·列女二》㉕*）

==明==
[[:w:李時珍|李時珍]]完成《本草綱目》，他蒐集藥名是為了「凡經人用者，皆不可遺」，「人部」舉凡毛髮、指甲、牙齒、屎尿、唾液、乳汁、眼淚、汗水、人骨、胞衣（[[:w:紫河車|紫河車]]）、體垢、月水、人勢（陰莖）、人膽、結石……皆可入藥。頭髮可治傷寒、肚疼，男性陰毛治蛇咬，人魄（人吊死級的魂魄）可以安神定魄。

明朝没有像元朝一样法律禁止割肉疗亲，但朱元璋和其礼部尚书公开表示不赞同，但此后仍然多次出现，而且得到政府表彰，还有王族如此做，可见此风难止。

* 至（洪武）二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。礼臣（任亨泰）议曰：“人子事亲，居则致其敬，养则致其乐，有疾则医药吁祷，迫切之情，人子所得为也。至卧冰割股，上古未闻。倘父母止有一子，或割肝而丧生，或卧冰而致死，使父母无依，宗祀永绝，反为不孝之大。皆由愚昧之徒，尚诡异，骇愚俗，希旌表，规避里徭。割股不已，至于割肝，割肝不已，至于杀子。违道伤生，莫此为甚。自今父母有疾，疗治罔功，不得已而卧冰割股，亦听其所为，不在旌表例。”制曰：“可。”（《明史·卷一百三十七·列传第二十五·刘三吾等》）

食人事件的记载：

#  [[:w:韩观|韩观]]杀人甚多，御史欲弹劾他。一日，观召御史饮，以人皮为坐褥，耳目口鼻显然，发散垂褥，首披椅后。肴上，设一人首，观以箸取二目食之，曰：“他禽兽目皆不可食，惟人目甚美。”观前席坐，每拿人至，命斩之，不回首视，已而血流满庭。观曰： “此辈与禽兽不异，斩之如杀虎豹耳。”御史战栗失措曰：“公，神人也。”竟不能劾。&lt;ref&gt;《[[s:湧幢小品/09#韓都督應變|湧幢小品 韓都督應變]]》朱国桢&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1385年，洪武十八年：（韩）林儿本起盗贼，无大志，又听命福通，徒拥虚名。诸将在外者率不遵约束，所过焚劫，至啖老弱为粮，且皆福通故等夷，福通亦不能制。（《明史·卷一百二十二·列传第十·郭子兴 韩林儿》㉕*）
#  约1426年，宣德年间：得（朱）有熺掠食生人肝脑诸不法事，于是并免为庶人。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  1454年，景泰五年：景泰五年，广西古丁等洞贼首蓝伽、韦万山等，纠合蛮类，劫掠南宁、上林、武缘诸处。……贼首韦朝威据古田，县官窜会城，遣典史入县抚谕，烹食之。（《明史·卷三百十七·列传第二百五·广西土司》㉕*）
#  1457年，天顺元年：北畿、山東並飢，發塋墓，斫道樹殆盡。父子或相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  约1465年，成化初：成化初，（彭伦）从赵辅，平大藤峡贼。……（彭）伦大会所部目、把缚俘囚，置高竿，集健卒乱射杀之，复割裂肢体，烹啖诸壮士。（《明史·卷一百六十六·列传第五十四·韩观等》㉕*）
#  1484年，成化二十年：是秋，陝西、山西大旱饑，人相食。停歲辦物料，免稅糧，發帑轉粟，開納米事例振之。（《明史·卷十四·本纪第十四·宪宗二》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;又有虎臣者，麟游人。成化中贡入太学。……省亲归，会陕西大饥，……上言：“臣乡比岁灾伤，人相食，由长吏贪残，赋役失均。请敕有司审民户，编三等以定科徭。”从之。（《明史·卷一百六十四·列传第五十二·邹缉等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十六年（何乔新）擢右副都御史，巡抚山西。……进左副都御史。……召拜刑部右侍郎。山西大饥，人相食。命往振，活三十余万人，还流冗十四万户。（《明史·卷一百八十三·列传第七十一·何乔新等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;汪奎，字文灿，婺源人。……（成化）二十一年，星变，偕同官疏陈十事，言：“……山、陕、河、洛饥民多流郧、襄，至骨肉相啖。请大发帑庾振济，消弭他变。”（《明史·卷一百八十·列传第六十八·张宁等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1504年，弘治十七年：十七年，淮、扬、庐、凤洊饥，人相食，且发瘗胔（坟墓尸体）以继之。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1518年，正德十三年：佛郎机，近满剌加。正德中，据满剌加地，逐其王。十三年遣使臣加必丹末等贡方物，请封，始知其名。诏给方物之直，遣还。其人久留不去，剽劫行旅，至掠小儿为食。（《明史·卷三百二十五·列传第二百十三·外国六》㉕*）
#  正德五年（1510年）八月，[[:w:刘瑾|刘瑾]]被磔死，凌迟三日，共剐3300余刀。行刑之日，北京鼎沸，百姓相爭以一钱买刘瑾一塊肉，生吞以泄恨。{{Citation needed}}
#  1519年，正德十四年：是岁，淮、扬饥，人相食。（《明史·卷十六·本纪第十六·武宗》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;十四年三月，有诏南巡，（黄）巩上疏曰：……今江、淮大饥，父子兄弟相食。（《明史·卷一百八十九·列传第七十七·李文祥等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（吴）一鹏极陈四方灾异，言：“自去年六月迄今二月，其间天鸣者三，地震者三十八，秋冬雷电雨雹十八，暴风、白气、地裂、山崩、产妖各一，民饥相食二。非常之变，倍于往时。愿陛下率先群工，救疾苦，罢营缮，信大臣，纳忠谏，用回天意。”（《明史·卷一百九十一·列传第七十九·毛澄等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1524年，嘉靖三年：三年，湖广、河南、大名、临清饥。南畿诸郡大饥，父子相食，道殣相望，臭弥千里。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;（张）汉卿言：“……今东南洊饥，民至骨肉相食，而搜括之令频行，臣等窃以为不可。”（《明史·卷一百九十二·列传第八十·杨慎》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;世宗即位，（韩邦靖）起山西左参议，分守大同。岁饥，人相食，奏请发帑，不许。（《明史·卷二百一·列传第八十九·陶琰等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖四年二月（余珊）应诏陈十渐，其略曰：……近年以来，黄纸蠲放，白纸催征；额外之敛，下及鸡豚；织造之需，自为商贾。江、淮母子相食，兖、豫盗贼横行，川、陕、湖、贵疲于供饷。（《明史·卷二百八·列传第九十六·张芹等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;嘉靖初，（湛若水）入朝，……明年进侍读，复疏言：“一二年间，天变地震，山崩川涌，人饥相食，殆无虚月。”（《明史·卷二百八十三·列传第一百七十一·儒林二》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1529年，嘉靖八年：（杨爵）登嘉靖八年进士，授行人。帝方崇饰礼文，（杨）爵因使王府还，上言：“臣奉使湖广，睹民多菜色，挈筐操刃，割道殍食之。（《明史·卷二百九·列传第九十七·杨最等》㉕*）
#  1549年，嘉靖二十八年：有吴国佐者，洪州司特峒寨苗也，….. 其党石纂太称“太保”，合攻上黄堡，诱败参将黄冲霄，追至永从县，杀守备张世忠，炙而啖之。（《明史·卷二百四十七·列传第一百三十五·刘綎等》㉕*）
#  1552年，嘉靖三十一年：宣、大二镇大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1553年，嘉靖三十二年：京师大饥，人相食，米石二两二钱。（《历代社会风俗事物考》引《金垒子》）
#   1557年，嘉靖三十六年：三十六年，辽东大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1559年，嘉靖三十八年八月：以辽东连年饥馑，至有父食死子者，发银糴粟赈之。（《中外历史年表》）
#   1588，万历十六年：十六年，河南饥，民相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#   1591年，万历十九年：（万历）十九年，（子俊民）还理部事。河南大饥，人相食，请发银米各数十万。（《明史·卷二百十四·列传第一百二·杨博等》㉕*）
#   1593年，万历二十二年：二十二年，河南大饥，人相食，命（钟）化民兼河南道御史往振。荒政具举，民大悦。（《明史·卷二百二十七·列传第一百十五·庞尚鹏等》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;（陈登云）出按河南。岁大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百三十三·列传第一百二十一·姜应麟等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#   1601年，万历二十九年：二十九年，两畿饥。阜平县饥，有食其稚子者。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1611年，万历三十九年：马孟祯，字泰符，桐城人。万历二十六年进士。……三十九年夏，怡神殿灾。孟祯言：“二十年来，郊庙、朝讲、召对、面议俱废，通下情者惟章奏。……畿辅、山东、山西、河南，比岁旱饥。民间卖女鬻儿，食妻啖子，铤而走险，急何能择。”（《明史·卷二百三十·列传第一百十八·蔡时鼎等》㉕*）
#  康熙十二年修《青州府志》第20卷载，万历四十三年（1615年），山东青州府推官[[:w:黄槐开|黄槐开]]在一件申文中说：“自古饥年，止闻道殣相望与易子而食、析骸而爨耳。今屠割活人以供朝夕，父子不问矣，夫妇不问矣，兄弟不问矣。剖腹剜心，支解作脍，且以人心味为美，小儿味尤为美。甚有鬻人肉于市，每斤价钱六文者；有腌人肉于家，以备不时之需者；有割人头用火烧熟而吮其脑者；有饿方倒而众刀攒割立尽者；亦有割肉将尽而眼瞪瞪视人者。间有为人所诃禁，辄应曰：&quot;我不食人，人将食我。&quot;愚民恬不为怪，有司法无所施。枭獍在途，天地昼晦。”
#  1616年，万历四十四年：四十四年，山东饥甚，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;今春以来，天鼓两震于晋地，流星昼陨于清丰，地震二十八，天火九，石首雨菽，河内女妖，辽东兵端吐火，即春秋二百四十年间，未有稠于今日者。且山东大昆，人相食，黄河水稽天。（《明史·卷二百五十七·列传第一百四十五·张鹤鸣等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;“以山东大饥，致母食死儿，夫食死妻，再振之。”（《中外历史年表》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  萬曆四十五年（1617年）連兩年山東大饑，蔡州有人肉市。“中州兄弟两无子，去山东买妾，遇二女，自称姑嫂，骗兄弟往。兄得小姑。小姑私语之曰：汝弟已为我嫂制成肉羹矣。兄急往视，弟头尚扔炕下。兄急诉之县，抵嫂于罪，兄带小姑去。”（《[[:w:棗林杂俎|棗林杂俎]]》）
#  近日福建抽稅太監高采謬聽方士言：食小兒腦千餘，其陽道可復生如故。乃遍買童稚潛殺之。久而事彰聞，民間無肯鬻者，則令人遍往他所盜至送入，四方失兒者無算，遂至激變掣回。此等俱飛天夜叉化身也。&lt;ref&gt;[[s:萬曆野獲編/卷28#食人]]&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1621年，天启初：天启初，奢崇明反，率众薄城。（董）尽伦偕知州翁登彦固守。贼遣使说降，尽伦大怒，手刃贼使，抉其睛啖之，屡挫贼锋，城获全。（《明史·卷二百九十·列传第一百七十八·忠义二》㉕*）
#  1622年，天启二年：万化亦率苗仲九股陷龙里，遂围贵阳，自称罗甸王，时天启二年二月也。……外援既绝，攻益急，城中粮尽，人相食，而拒守不遗余力。（《明史·卷三百十六·列传第二百四·贵州土司》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;方官廪之告竭也，米升直二十金。食糠核草木败革皆尽，食死人肉，后乃生食人，至亲属相啖。彦方、运清部卒公屠人市肆，斤易银一两。枟尽焚书籍冠服，预戒家人，急则自尽，皆授以刀缳。城中户十万，围困三百日，仅存者千余人。（《明史·卷二百四十九·列传第一百三十七·朱燮元等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1627年，清皇太极之天聪元年，天启七年：（清）国中大饥，斗米价银八两（天启时金一两合銀十两），人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马银300两，牛一银百两，蟒缎一，银百五十两，布一匹，银九两。（《清太宗实录卷三》）
#  “天启辛酉，延安、庆阳、平凉旱，岁大饥。东事孔棘，有司惟顾军兴，征督如故，民不能供，道殣相望。或群职富者粟，惧捕诛，始聚为盗。盗起，饥益甚，连年赤地，斗米千钱不能得，人相食，从乱如归。饥民为贼由此而始。”&lt;ref&gt;《怀陵流寇始终录》，卷1，1页。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  1629年，崇禎二年，殺[[:w:袁崇煥|袁崇煥]]。[[:w:張岱|張岱]]《石匱書後集》：“（袁崇煥）遂於鎮撫司綁發西市，寸寸臠割之。割肉一塊，京師百姓從劊子手爭取生啖之。劊子亂撲，百姓以錢爭買其肉，頃刻立荊開腔出其腸胃，百姓群起搶之，得其一節者，和燒酒生嚙，血流齒頰間，猶唾地罵不已。拾得其骨者，以刀斧碎磔之，骨肉俱盡，止剩一首，傳視九邊。”，“时百姓怨恨，争啖其肉，皮骨已尽，心肺之间犹叫声不绝，半日而止，所谓活剐者也……百姓将银一钱，买肉一块，如手指大，噉之。食时必骂一声，须臾崇焕肉悉卖尽。”（[[:w:计六奇|计六奇]]：《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》卷五）
#  1633年，崇祯六年：（陈）三接，文水人。举崇祯六年乡试，知河间县。岁旱饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二百九十一·列传第一百七十九·忠义三》㉕*）
#  1634年，崇祯七年：七年，京师饥，御史龚廷献绘《饥民图》以进。太原大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;七年，西北大旱，秦、晋人相食，（吴甘来）疏请发粟以振。（《明史·卷二百六十六·列传第一百五十四·马世奇等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1636年，崇祯九年：山西大饥，人相食。（《明史·卷二十三·本纪第二十三·庄烈帝一》㉕*）
#   1637年，崇祯十年：十年浙江大饥，父子、兄弟、夫妻相食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  崇禎十二年（1639年）[[:w:鄭鄤|鄭鄤]]以「杖母、姦妹」罪被磔死。《[[:w:明季北略|明季北略]]》记载鄭鄤被凌迟三千六百刀後，为“都人士”药用：“炮声响后，人皆跻足引领，顿高尺许，拥挤之极……归途所见，买生肉为疮疥药料者，遍长安市。二十年前之文章气节，功名显宦，竟与参术甘皮同奏肤功，亦大奇也。”
#  1639年，崇祯十二年：十二年，两畿、山东、山西、陕西、江西饥。河南大饥，人相食，卢氏、嵩、伊阳三县尤甚。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）
#  1640年，崇禎十三年，全國有123州縣發生“人相食”，98州縣蝗災。{{Citation needed}}&lt;p&gt;是年，两畿、山东、河南、山、陕旱蝗，人相食。（《明史·卷二十四·本纪第二十四·庄烈帝二》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;关河大旱，人相食，土寇蜂起，陕西窦开远、河南李际遇为之魁，饥民从之，所在告警。（《明史·卷二百五十二·列传第一百四十·杨嗣昌等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十三年，北畿、山东、河南、陕西、山西、浙江、三吴皆饥。自淮而北至畿南，树皮食尽，发瘗胔（坟墓里的尸体）以食。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：德州斗米千钱，父子相食，行人断绝。大盗滋矣。（《明史·卷三十·志第六·五行三（金 土）·年饥》㉕*）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;及崇祯时，常洵地近属尊，朝廷尊礼之。常洵日闭阁饮醇酒，所好惟妇女倡乐。秦中流贼起，河南大旱蝗，人相食，民间藉藉，谓先帝耗天下以肥王，洛阳富于大内。（《明史·卷一百二十·列传第八·诸王五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;芳奕，慷慨负智略，与秉衡同举于乡，为昌乐知县。解官归，岁大歉，人相食，倾橐济之。（《明史·卷二百九十三·列传第一百八十一·忠义五》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;十四年（左懋第）督催漕运，道中驰疏言：“臣自静海抵临清，见人民饥死者三，疫死者三，为盗者四。米石银二十四两，人死取以食，惟圣明垂念。”（《明史·卷二百七十五·列传第一百六十三·张慎言等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt; 崇禎十四年（1641年），「浙江大旱，飛蝗蔽天，食草根幾盡，人饑且疫」。崇祯十四年二月，时山东荒旱，寇盗益炽，徐德（南端到北端）数千里-{}-白骨纵横，父子相食，人迹断绝。（彭贻孙《平寇志》）
#  1641年，崇祯十四年：（九月）十一日，秦师食尽，宗龙杀马骡以享军。明日，营中马骡尽，杀贼取其尸分啖之。（《明史·卷二百六十二·列传第一百五十·傅宗龙等》㉕*）
#  明朝末年，四川大饑，“蜀大飢，人相食。先是丙戌、丁亥，連歲干涸，至是彌甚。赤地千里，糲米一斗價二十金，養麥一斗價七八金，久之亦無賣者篙芹木葉，取食殆盡。時有裹珍珠二昇，易一面不得而殆：有持數百金，買一飽不得而死。於是人皆相食，道路飢殍，剝取殆盡。無所得，父子、兄弟、夫妻，轉相賊殺。”（清·彭遵泅《蜀碧》卷四）
#  「庚辰山西大饑，人相食，剖心，其竅多寡不等。或無竅，或五六，其二、三竅為多，心大小各異。」（《[[:w:棗林雜俎|棗林雜俎]]·和集》）
#  明朝崇禎末年，河南和山東發生饑荒和蝗災，可以吃的東西都已經吃完，唯一剩下的可以吃的就只有人，於是便有了公開的人肉市場，其販賣的乃是活生生的人，稱之曰“[[:w:菜人|菜人]]”。[[:w:紀昀|紀昀]]《[[:w:閱微草堂筆記|閱微草堂筆記]]》有這樣的記載：“婦女幼孩，反接鬻於市，謂之菜人”。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《閱微草堂筆記》 |wslink=閱微草堂筆記 |chapter=卷2 |author=紀昀 | authorlink=紀昀}}&lt;/ref&gt;而在[[:w:屈大均|屈大均]]創作的一首七言古詩《[[s:菜人哀|菜人哀]]》，內容即以第一視角描述一對夫妻在崇禎末年，一位丈夫因過於飢餓，將妻子賣予一家屠戶成為“菜人”。
#  《陕西通志》第86卷载有明朝崇祯年间[[:w:马懋才|马懋才]]的《备陈灾变疏》，疏中写道：“臣乡延安府，自去岁一年无雨，草木枯焦。八、九月间，民争采山间蓬草而食，其粒类糠皮，其味苦而涩，食之仅可延以不死。至十月以后而蓬尽矣；则剥树皮而食。诸树惟榆树差善，杂他树皮以为食，亦可稍缓其死。殆年终而树皮又尽矣，则又掘山中石块而食。甘石名青叶，味腥而腻，少食辄饱，不数日则腹胀下坠而死。民有不甘于食石以死者始相聚为盗，而一、二稍有积贮之民遂为所劫，而抢掠无遗矣。有司亦不能禁治。间有获者亦恬不知畏；且曰：“死于饥与死于盗等耳，与其坐而饥死，何若为盗而死，犹得为饱鬼也。”
#  [[:w:計六奇|計六奇]]說：“天降奇荒，所以资自成也！”&lt;ref&gt;{{cite wikisource |title=《明季北略》 |wslink=明季北略 |chapter=卷05 |author=計六奇|authorlink=計六奇}}&lt;/ref&gt;。 
#  崇禎十四年（1641年）二月，[[:w:李自成|李自成]]攻陷洛陽，殺重達三百六十多斤的福王[[:w:朱常洵|朱常洵]]，用他的肉和皇家園林裡的[[:w:梅花鹿|梅花鹿]]一同烹煮，在洛陽西關周公廟舉行宴會，賜給部下食用，名曰“福祿宴”。&lt;ref&gt;《明季北略·卷十七》：王体肥，重三百余筋，贼置酒大会，以王为菹，杂鹿肉食之，号福禄酒。&lt;/ref&gt;
#  约1644年，顺治二年：（刘）泽清颇涉文艺，好吟咏。尝召客饮酒唱和。幕中蓄两猿，以名呼之即至。一日，宴其故人子，酌酒金瓯中，瓯可容三升许，呼猿捧酒跪送客。猿狰狞甚，客战掉，逡巡不敢取。泽清笑曰：“君怖耶？”命取囚扑死阶下，剜其脑及心肝，置瓯中，和酒，付猿捧之前。饮酹，颜色自若。其凶忍多此类。（《明史·卷二百七十三·列传第一百六十一·左良玉等》㉕*）
#   明末：中原盗起十余年，所在荼毒，督抚莫能办，率倡抚议，苟且幸无事，盗且服且叛。而河南比年大旱蝗，人相食，民益蜂起为盗。（《清史稿·卷五百·列传二百八十七·遗逸一》㉕*）
#  时有将军安氵侃者，一岁丧母，事其父以孝闻。父病革，刲臂为汤饮父，父良已。（《明史·卷一百十六·列传第四·诸王》㉕*）
#  襄陵王冲秌，宪王第二子，有至性。母病，刲股和药，病良已。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
# （襄陵王冲秌之）子范址服其教，母荆罹危疾，亦刲股进之，愈。（《明史·卷一百十八·列传第六·诸王三》㉕*）
#  刘铉，字宗器，长洲人。生弥月而孤。及长，刲股疗母疾。母卒，哀毁，以孝闻。（《明史·卷一百六十三·列传第五十一·李时勉等》㉕*）
# （孙）祖寿初守固关，遘危疾，妻张氏割臂以疗，绝饮食者七日。祖寿生，而张氏旋死，遂终身不近妇人。（《明史·卷二百七十一·列传第一百五十九·贺世贤》㉕*）
#  朱鉴，字用明，晋江人。童时刲股疗父疾。举乡试，授蒲圻教谕。（《明史·卷一百七十二·列传第六十·罗亨信等》㉕*）
#  储巏，字静夫，泰州人。九岁能属文。母疾，刲股疗之，卒不起。（《明史·卷二百八十六·列传第一百七十四·文苑二》㉕*）
#  许琰，字玉仲，吴县人。幼有至性，尝刲臂疗父疾。（《明史·卷二百九十五·列传第一百八十三·忠义七》㉕*）
#  沈德四，直隶华亭人。祖母疾，刲股疗之愈。己而祖父疾，又刲肝作汤进之，亦愈。洪武二十六年被旌。寻授太常赞礼郎。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  上元姚金玉、昌平王德儿亦以刲肝愈母疾，与德四同旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  至二十七年九月，山东守臣言：“日照民江伯儿，母疾，割肋肉以疗，不愈。祷岱岳神，母疾瘳，愿杀子以祀。已果瘳，竟杀其三岁儿。”帝大怒曰：“父子天伦至重。《礼》父服长子三年。今小民无知，灭伦害理，亟宜治罪。”遂逮伯儿，仗之百，遣戍海南。因命议旌表例。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  永乐间，江阴卫卒徐佛保等复以割股被旌。（《明史·卷二百九十六·列传第一百八十四·孝义》㉕*）
#  夏子孝，字以忠，桐城人。六岁失母，哀哭如成人。九岁父得危疾，祷天地，刲股六寸许，调羹以进，父食之顿愈。翌日，子孝痛创，父诘其故，始知之。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  金子良亦有孝行，父病，刲股为羹以进，旋愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  唐俨，全州诸生也。父荫，郴州知州，归老得危疾。俨年十二，潜割臂肉进之，疾良已。及父殁，哀毁如成人。其后游学于外，嫡母寝疾。俨妻邓氏年十八，奋曰：“吾妇人，安知汤药。昔夫子以臂肉疗吾舅，吾独不能疗吾姑哉？”于是割胁肉以进，姑疾亦愈。（《明史·卷二百九十七·列传第一百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘孝妇，新乐韩太初妻。……刘事姑谨，姑道病，刺血和药以进。……及姑疾笃，刲肉食之，少苏，逾月而卒，殡之舍侧。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  程氏，扬州胡尚絅妻。尚絅婴危疾，妇刲腕肉啖之，不能咽而卒。妇号恸不食二日。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  杨泰奴，仁和杨得安女。许嫁未行。天顺四年，母疫病不愈。泰奴三割胸肉食母，不效。一日薄幕，剖胸取肝一片，昏仆良久。及苏，以衣裹创，手和粥以进，母遂愈。母宿有膝挛疾，亦愈。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  后有张氏，仪真周祥妻。姑病，医百方不效。一方士至其门曰：“人肝可疗。”张割左胁下，得膜如絮，以手探之没腕，取肝二寸许，无少痛，作羹以进姑，病遂瘳。（《明史·卷三百一·列传第一百八十九·列女一》㉕*）
#  李孝妇，临武人，名中姑，适江西桂廷凤。姑邓患痰疾，将不起，妇涕泣忧悼。闻有言乳肉可疗者，心识之。一日，煮药，巘香祷灶神，自割一乳，昏仆于地，气已绝。廷凤呼药不至，出视，见血流满地，大惊呼救，倾骇城市，邑长佐皆诣其庐，命亟治。俄有僧踵门曰：“以室中蕲艾傅之，即愈。”如其言，果苏，比求僧不复见矣。乃取乳和药奉姑，姑竟获全。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  洪氏，怀宁章崇雅妻。崇雅早卒，洪守志十年。姑许，疾不能起，洪剜乳肉为羹而饮之，获愈，余肉投池中，不令人知。数日后，群鸭自水中衔出，鸣噪回翔，小童获以告姑。姑起视之，乳血犹淋漓也。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  倪氏，兴化陆鳌妻。性纯孝，舅早世，悯姑老，朝夕侍寝处，与夫睽异者十五年。姑鼻患疽垂毙，躬为吮治，不愈，乃夜焚香告天，割左臂肉以进，姑啖之愈。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  刘氏，张能信妻，太仆卿宪宠女，工部尚书九德妇也。性至孝，姑病十年，侍汤药不离侧。及病剧，举刀刲臂，侍婢惊持之。舅闻，嘱医言病不宜近腥腻，力止之。逾日，竟刲肉煮糜以进，则乃姑已不能食，乃大悔恨曰：“医绐我，使姑未鉴我心。”复刲肉寸许，恸哭奠箦前，将阖棺，取所奠置棺中曰：“妇不获复事我姑，以此肉伴姑侧，犹身事姑也。”乡人莫不称其孝。（《明史·卷三百二·列传第一百九十·列女二》㉕*）
#  （颍）州又有台氏，诸生张云鹏妻。夫病，氏单衣蔬食，祷天愿代，割臂为糜以进。（《明史·卷三百三·列传第一百九十一·列女三》㉕*）

==清==
《清史稿》记载的割肉疗亲的事迹比二十五史以往各朝都多，但其实雍正有一段诏书不赞同割肉疗亲，朝廷的实际做法似乎是迫于民情不得已的情况下低调褒奖（“破格报可”），社会风气看来是称赞这种行为的。

* 雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）
* 清兴关外，俗纯朴，爱亲敬长，内悫而外严。既定鼎，礼教益备。定旌格，循明旧。亲存，奉侍竭其力；亲殁，善居丧，或庐于墓；亲远行，万里行求，或生还，或以丧归。友于兄弟，同居三五世以上，号义门，及诸义行，皆礼旌。亲病，刲股刳肝；亲丧，以身殉：皆以伤生有禁，有司以事闻，辄破格报可。所以教民者，若是其周其密也。国史承前例，撰次孝友传，亦颇及诸义行。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》）

历史记载中清朝的食人事件：

#  努尔哈赤时代：扬古利，舒穆禄氏，世居浑春。父郎柱，为库尔喀部长，率先附太祖，……扬古利手刃杀父者，割耳鼻生啖之，时年甫十四，太祖深异焉。（《清史稿·卷二百二十六·列传十三·扬古利等》㉕*）
#  清初：虞尔忘、尔雪，江南无锡人。国初江南多盗，尔忘、尔雪父罕卿董乡团，……罕卿死桥下矣。……知为盗杜息（所杀）。….. 比明，尔忘抱罕卿木主至，尔雪于其旁爇釜，尔忘取（杜）息舌，尔雪探心肝，且祭且啖，尔忘乃断（杜）息头。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  1627年，天聪元年，《太宗实录卷三》：“时国中大饥，斗米价银八两，人有相食者。国中银两虽多，无外贸易，是以银贱而诸物腾贵。良马，银三百两。牛一，银百两。蟒缎一，银百五十两。布匹一，银九两。盗贼繁兴，偷窃牛马，或行劫杀。于是诸臣入奏曰：盗贼若不按律严惩，恐不能止息。上恻然，谕曰：今岁国中因年饥乏食，致民不得已而为盗耳。缉获者，鞭而释之可也。遂下令，是岁谳狱，姑从宽典。仍大发帑金，散赈饥民。”
#  1631年，皇太极天聪四年：顷大凌河之役，城中人相食，明人犹死守，及援尽城降，而锦州、松、杏犹不下。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;旋有王世龙者，越城出降，言城中粮竭，商贾诸杂役多死，存者人相食，马毙殆尽。（《清史稿·卷二百三十四·列传二十一·孔有德等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;祖大壽疏奏：“被圍將及三月，城中食盡，殺人相食。”（《崇禎長編》卷五二）。&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;明大凌河城內，糧絕薪盡。軍士飢甚，殺其修城夫役及商賈平民為食，析骸而炊。又執軍士之羸弱者，殺而食之。（《清太宗實錄·卷十》）&lt;/p&gt;
#  1635年，皇太极天聪八年：先是，察哈尔林丹西奔图白特，其部众苦林丹暴虐，逗遛者什七八，食尽，杀人相食，屠劫不已，溃散四出。（《清史稿·卷二·本纪二·太宗本纪一》㉕*）
#  1645年，顺治二年：二年，耒（枣？）阳、襄阳、光化、宜城大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷44·志十九·災異五》 |wslink=清史稿/卷44 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  1648年，顺治五年：五年春，广州、鹤庆（大理，洱海之北）嵩明（昆明市东北）大饥，人相食。”（{{cite wikisource |title=《清史稿·卷42·志十七·災異三》 |wslink=清史稿/卷42 |author=趙爾巽|authorlink=趙爾巽}}㉕*）
#  順治九年八月，漳州被圍半年，城中缺糧，一碗稀粥索價白銀四兩。居民以老鼠、麻雀、樹根、樹葉、水萍、紙張和皮革等物為食，餓死者不計其數，“城中人自相食，百姓十死其八，兵馬盡皆枵腹”&lt;ref&gt;《明清史料》丁編，第一本，第七十五頁《查明漳州解圍功次殘件》。&lt;/ref&gt;。
#  1654年，顺治十一年：顺治十一年，明将李定国攻新会，城守阅八月，食尽，杀人马为食。（《清史稿·卷五百十·列传二百九十七·列女三》㉕*）
#  顺治年間，“安邑知县鹿尽心者，得痿痺疾。有方士挟乩术，自称刘海蟾，教以食小儿脑即愈。鹿信之，辄以重价购小儿击杀食之，所杀伤甚众，而病不减。因复请于乩仙，复教以生食乃可愈。因更生凿小儿脑吸之。致死者不一，病竟不愈而死。事随彰闻，被害之家，共置方士于法。”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:王士祯|王士祯]]：《池北偶谈·鹿尽心》&lt;/ref&gt;
#  康熙十八年（1679年），山东“终年不雨，大饥，人相食。”（乾隆《青城（即今高青）县-{}-志》卷10）
#  1681年，康熙二十年：诇知粮将罄，人相食，与诸将环而攻之。（吴）世璠众内乱，欲擒世璠以降，世璠自杀。（《清史稿·卷二百五十四·列传四十一·赉塔等》㉕*）
#  1698年，康熙三十七年春：三十七年春，平定、乐平大饥，人相食。”（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1703年，康熙四十二年：永年（邯郸东北）、东明（大名府之南部，山东曹州西）饥。秋：沛县、亳州、东阿、曲阜、蒲县（属隰州，非蒲城县）、滕县大饥。冬，汶上、沂州、莒州、兖州、东昌、郓城大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1704年，康熙四十三年：四十三年春，泰安大饥，人相食，死者枕藉。肥城，东平大饥，人相食。武定（惠民）、滨州（武定东）、商河（武定西南）、阳信（武定北）、利津、沾化饥；兖州、登州大饥，民死大半，至食屋草；昌邑、即墨、掖县、高密、膠州大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#   1785年，乾隆五十年：秋，寿光、昌乐、安丘、诸城大饥，父子相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1786年，乾隆五十一年：五十一年春，山东各府、州、县大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;《病榻梦痕录》卷上乾隆五十一年（１７８６）条记载了苏皖鲁等地的灾情，时灾民卖妻鬻子，“流丐载道”，“尸横道路”，尸体“埋于土，辄被人刨发，刮肉而啖”。&lt;/p&gt;
#  1801，嘉庆六年: 罗思举，字天鹏，四川东乡人。……（嘉庆）六年，歼张世龙于铁溪河，……自是转战老林，饷不时至，煮马鞯，啗贼肉以追贼。……尝酒酣袒身示人，战创斑斑，为父母刲股痕凡七，其忠孝盖出天性云。（《清史稿·卷三百四十七·列传一百三十四·杨遇春等》㉕*）
#  1832年，道光十二年：夏，紫阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1833年，道光十三年：夏，保康、郧县、房县饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1834年，道光十四年：十四年春，归州、兴山大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1847年，道光二十七年：二十七年，南乐饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1857年，咸丰七年：七年春，肥城、东平大饥，死者枕藉；鱼台、日照、临朐亦饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1863年，同治二年，[[:w:石達開|石達開]]的軍隊為[[:w:大渡河|大渡河]]的涨水所阻，當時石部全軍已是“覓食無所得，有相殺噬人肉者”。（许亮儒遗著《擒石野史》）
#  [[:w:陈康祺|陈康祺]]《郎潜纪闻二笔》记载“同治三、四年，皖南到处食人，人肉始买三十文一斤，后增至一百二十文一斤，句容、二溧，八十文一斤，惨矣。”
#  同治三年（1864年），皖南人相食，人肉價格大漲。《曾国藩日记》同治三年四月廿二日记载：“皖南到处食人，人肉始卖三十文一斤，近闻增至百二十文一斤，句容、二溧八十文一斤。”《曾國藩日記》又記載：“[[:w:太平天国|洪楊]]之亂，[[:w:江蘇|江蘇]]人肉賣九十文一斤，漲到一百三十文錢一斤。”
#  1866年，同治五年：五年，兰州饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）
#  1867年，同治六年：五年，（穆图善）收灵州。……明年，署陕甘总督，值岁大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠》㉕*）
#  1868年，同治七年：七年春，即墨、孝义厅、蓝田、沔县饥。夏，泾州大饥，人相食。《清史稿·卷四十四·志十九·灾异五》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;时庆阳大饥，人相食。（《清史稿·卷四百五十四·列传二百四十一·刘锦棠等》㉕）&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; 同治七年（1868年），[[:w:定西|定西]]、[[:w:通渭|通渭]]大旱，時逢戰亂，瘟疫並起，人相食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}&lt;/p&gt;
#  1877年，光绪三年：是岁，山、陕大旱，人相食。（《清史稿·卷二十三·本纪二十三·德宗本纪一》㉕*）&lt;p&gt;丁戊奇荒是中国华北地区发生于清朝光绪元年（1875年）至四年（1878年）之间的一场罕见的特大旱灾饥荒。灾害波及山西、直隶、陕西、河南、山东、甘肃等好几个省份，“饿殍载途，白骨盈野”，饿死的人竟达一千万以上，逃亡两千万以上。随著灾情的发展，可食之物的罄尽，“人食人”的惨剧发生了。大旱的第三年（1877年）冬天，重灾区山西，到处都有人食人现象。吃人肉、卖人肉者，比比皆是。有活人吃死人肉的，还有将老人或孩子活杀吃的……无情旱魔，把灾区变成了人间地狱! 在河南，侥幸活下来的饥民大多奄奄一息，“既无可食之肉，又无割人之力”，一些气息犹存的灾民，倒地之后即为饿犬残食。{{Citation needed|Date=January 2025}}《申报》1877年12月7日载：“今岁豫省之灾，亦不减于山右，……灾黎数百万，几有易子析骸之惨”&lt;/p&gt;
#  1900年，光绪二十六年：二十六年，两宫西狩，关中大饥，人相食，（唐）锡晋醵金四十万往赈，历二州八县，艰困不少阻。（《清史稿·卷四百五十二·列传二百三十九·洪汝奎等》㉕*）
#  1910年，宣统二年十二月：是月，江、淮饥，人相食。东三省疫。（《清史稿·卷二十五·本纪二十五·宣统皇帝本纪》㉕*）
#  1911年，宣统三年：钟麟同，字建堂，山东济宁州人。威海武备学堂毕业。……宣统三年九月初九日，七十三标兵变，夜半，自北校场入城。……以手枪自击而仆，变军碎其尸，剖心啖之。上闻，有“忠骸支解，惨不忍闻”之谕，谥忠壮。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  光熙，本名惠熙，字亮臣。少从盛昱游，励学。钟琦遘危疾，尝刲股和药以进。（《清史稿·卷四百六十九·列传二百五十六·恩铭等》㉕*）
#  礼堂，字和贵。事亲孝。父继宏，久疟，冬月畏火，礼堂潜以身温被。居丧如礼，笑不见齿。母遘危疾，刲股合药，私祷于神，减齿以延亲寿。（《清史稿·卷四百八十一·列传二百六十八·儒林二》㉕*）
#  宋大樽，字左彝，仁和人。弱岁，刲股愈母疾，让产其弟。（《清史稿·卷四百八十五·列传二百七十二·文苑二》㉕*）
#  潘德舆，字四农，山阳人。年五六岁，母病不食，亦不食。父咯血，刲臂肉和药进，父察其色动，泣曰：“固知儿有是也！”（《清史稿·卷四百八十六·列传二百七十三·文苑三》㉕*）
#  曾艾，字虎卿，湖南新化人。尝割左臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷四百八十九·列传二百七十六·忠义三》㉕*）
#  陈源兖，字岱云，湖南茶陵州人。道光十八年进士，改翰林，授编修，旋授江西吉安府。先是源兖妻易氏以源兖遘疾几殆，籥天原以身代，刲臂和药饮源兖，源兖以愈，易氏旋病卒。同乡公举孝妇，请旌于朝。（《清史稿·卷四百九十·列传二百七十七·忠义四》㉕*）
#  沈瀛，字士登，江苏吴县人。尝刲臂疗母疾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十六·列传二百八十三·忠义十》㉕*）
#  李盛山，福建罗源人。母病，割肝以救，伤重，卒。巡抚常赉疏请旌，下礼部，礼部议轻生愚孝，无旌表之例。雍正六年三月壬子，世宗谕曰：“……父母爱子，无所不至，若因己病而致其子割肝刲股以充饮馔、和汤药，纵其子无恙，父母未有不惊忧恻怛惨惕而不安者，况因此而伤生，岂父母所忍闻乎？父母有疾，固人子尽心竭力之时，傥能至诚纯孝，必且感天地、动鬼神，不必以惊世骇俗之为，著奇于日用伦常之外。……倘训谕之后，仍有不爱躯命，蹈于危亡者，朕亦不概加旌表，以成激烈轻生之习也。”盛山仍予旌表。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  吕斅孚，湖南永定人。父孟卿，贫，以客授自给。母病将殆，思肉食，斅孚方七岁，贷诸屠，屠不可，泣而归。闻母呻吟，益痛，内念股肉可啗母，取厨刀砺使利，割右股四寸许，授其女弟，方五岁，令就炉火炙以进。母疾良已，孟卿归，察斅孚足微跛，得其状，与母持以哭。斅孚曰：“毋然，儿固无所苦也。”……孟卿亦尝刲股愈父病，然斅孚割股时，初不知父有是事也。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  汪灏，江南休宁人。晨、日昂、日升，其弟也。父病咯血，灏年十六，割股和药进，良愈。后数年病足，晨割股炼为末，敷治亦愈。又数年复咯血，晨复割臂以疗。更数年，疾大作，灏复割臂，勿瘳。晨病，日昂泣曰：“吾兄割臂愈父，吾不能割以愈吾兄乎？”众尼之。懵且仆，匠治棺，日升持匠斧断指，血淋漓，调药以饮晨。有司表其门曰“一门四孝友”。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  觉罗色尔岱，满洲镶红旗人，德世库七世孙也。性笃孝。年十七，父病，医不效，乃割左臂为糜以进，病稍间，旋歾。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  康熙间，以割臂疗亲旌者，有翁杜、佟良，与色尔岱同时有克什布。翁杜，满洲镶白旗人；佟良，蒙古镶黄旗人：官防御。克什布，满洲镶红旗人，官三等侍卫。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  奚缉营，字圣辉，江苏宝山人。父士本，以孝旌。缉营幼读论语，至“父母之年，不可不知”，辄陨涕簌簌，师奇之，谓真孝子子也。母病，刲臂以疗。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  张三爱，江南歙县人。为人役。事母孝，母病，不能具药物。或谓之曰：“汝欲愈母病，盍刲肝？”三爱祷于丛祠，破腹，肝堕出，以右手劙肝，得指许，左手纳于腹，束以白麻。归以肝和羹饮母，母良愈，三爱创亦合。（《清史稿·卷四百九十七·列传二百八十四·孝义一》㉕*）
#  杨献恒，山东益都人。父加官，与济南杨开泰有隙，……开泰计必欲杀献恒，遣其子承恩至青州谋诸吏。献恒潜知之，持铁骨朵挟刃至所居。承恩方与吏耳语，伺其出，以铁骨朵击之，仆，急拔刀断其喉，又抉其睛啖之，诣县自陈，出所藏银为证。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  刘希向，江南山阳人。……父病，希向为割股，良愈。希向年六十，病噎，其子亦割股，刀钝，肉不决，剪之，乃下，然希向竟不瘳。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  县有嫠张陈氏，家贫，刲肉以奉姑，训予田十亩助其养。（《清史稿·卷四百九十八·列传二百八十五·孝义二》㉕*）
#  李孔昭，字光四，蓟州人。……崇祯十五年进士，……母病，刲股疗之。（《清史稿·卷五百一·列传二百八十八·遗逸二》㉕*）
#  萧学华妻贺，湖南安化人。贺父徙陕西，学华赘其家。年余，学华归省母，贺欲与俱，父不许，贺割股肉付夫以奉姑。姑適病，学华烹肉进，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  子日焜妻李，尝刲股愈母病，事祖姑及姑孝。姑病，割臂进，病目，舐以舌，良已。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  王钜妻施，钜，萧山人；施，富阳人。姑严，小不当意，辄呵斥，施屏息不敢声。姑病反胃甚，医以为不治，施刲股和药进，病良已，姑遇施如故。钜疾作，施视疾惫，病瘵卒，姑犹不善施。钜以刲股事告，视其尸，信，乃大恸曰：“吾负孝妇！”（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  陈文世妻刘，郧人。陈、刘皆农家，刘待年于陈。既婚，姑年七十二，病噎，刘割臂和药以进，疾少间；既而复作，不食已十日，垂尽矣。刘夜屏人，杀鸡誓于神，持小刀自劙其胸二寸许，出肝刲半，取布束创，以肝与鸡同瀹汤奉姑。姑久不言，忽曰：“汤香甚！”饮之竟，病良愈，刘亦旋平。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林经妻陈，连江人，姑盲性卞，常臆妇藐己，陈断三指自明，姑为之悔。经病，刲股；经卒，以节终。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  林云铭妻蔡，云铭，闽人；……耿精忠反，下云铭狱，蔡忧之，呕血殷紫，女瑛佩剜臂肉入药，旋苏。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  崔龙见妻钱，名孟钿，字冠之，一字浣青。龙见，永济人；钱，武进人，侍郎维城女。九岁刲臂疗父疾。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  张茂信妻方，茂信，河津人；方仪徵人。方尝割股愈舅疾，舅与茂信皆卒，奉姑刘。（《清史稿·卷五百八·列传二百九十五·列女一》㉕*）
#  （袁）进忠病，疡生于胫，（养）女刲股以疗，家人皆不知，而长女虐愈甚。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王前洛聘妻林，潜山人。前洛病，林父饣鬼药，林潜刲股入药。前洛卒，固请奔丧，引刀誓不嫁。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  徐文经聘妻姚，名淑金，侯官人。文经卒，淑金屡求死，乃归于徐。贫，舅殁，姑疾作，刲股以疗。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  乔涌涛聘妻方，桐城人。涌涛卒，涌涛母丁亦病，方请于父母，归于乔。以姑病寒疾，亦薄其衣当风雪。刲股以进姑，病良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  袁绩懋妻左，绩懋见《忠义传》。左名锡璇，字芙江，阳湖人。事亲孝，父病，刲臂和药进。工诗善画，书法尤精，著有卷葹阁诗集。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  何其仁聘妻李，路南人。嘉庆十一年，年十六，未行。其仁及其父皆病笃，李割股畀叔母使送婿家。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  林国奎妻郑，闽人。国奎卒，有子二。郑将殉，姑诫以存孤，乃已。一子殇，遂自沉于江，渔者拯以还。姑疾，刲肝杂糜进，疾良已。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  吉山妻瓜尔佳氏，名惠兴，满洲人，杭州驻防。早寡，事姑谨，尝刲肱疗姑疾。（《清史稿·卷五百九·列传二百九十六·列女二》㉕*）
#  王如义妻向，涪州人。幼能为诗文。如义，农家子，向恒劝之读。道光十六年，如义暴卒，姑喻之嫁，矢以死。舅病，为刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  许会妻张，颍州人。姑姣而虐，恶张端谨不类，日诟且挞，张事姑益恭。姑病，刲股以疗，姑虐如故。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  安于磐妻朱、后妻田，于磐，贵州蛮夷司长官。初娶朱，事姑孝，姑病，刲股，卒。复娶田，于磐病，刲股。于磐卒，抚诸子成立。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  田养民妻杨，养民，朗溪司长官；杨，邑梅司人也。年十二，母病，刲股。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  伊嵩阿，拜都氏，满洲镶黄旗人；妻希光，钮祜禄氏，正白旗人，总督爱必达女也。伊嵩阿为大学士永贵从子，早卒。方病时，希光割股进，终不起，许以死。爱必达、永贵共喻之，誓毕婚嫁乃殉。为伊嵩阿弟娶，嫁女妹及二女，次女行之明日，自缢死。张遗诗于壁，略谓：“十载要盟，此日当报命。”乾隆四十六年三月事也。永贵疏闻，高宗为赋诗，旌其节。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）
#  朱承宇妻曹，承宇，无锡人；曹，武进人：皆农家也。生二子、一女，而承宇死。承宇弟迫之嫁，曹以死拒。……哭于承宇墓，还，遂缢。……及敛，左臂创未合，盖承宇病时尝割臂也。父为讼于县，罪迫嫁者。（《清史稿·卷五百十一·列传二百九十八·列女四》㉕*）

==中华民国==
1936年“3月1日万源曹家沟某家七人，饿毙四人；余三人气息奄奄，竟为逃荒饥民杀死，分割炙食无余。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}
1936年3月19日四川省报载：“北川县人肉每斤五百文。片口镇饥民张彭氏、何张氏、陈顺氏因饥饿难忍，挖掘死尸围食，被捕。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

1936年四川《民间意识》杂志汇载四川各地吃人的消息：“松潘半边街居民陈氏，自杀其八岁的亲生女而食，食尽仍病饿而死。沿途数百里内，人血、白骨与饿死者，填满沟壑。”{{cfn|许汉三|y=1985}}

民國30年（1941）-民國32年（1943）河南省大旱，人相食。1942年河南省赈济会推选[[:w:杨一峰|杨一峰]]、[[:w:刘庄甫|刘庄甫]]、[[:w:任兆鲁|任兆鲁]]三人等赴[[:w:重庆|重庆]]，请国民党中央免除徵賦，蒋介石拒不接见。大公报主笔[[:w:王芸生|王芸生]]在1942年的一篇《看重庆，念中原》的社论中写道：“饿死的暴骨失肉，逃亡的扶老携幼，妻离子散，挤人丛，挨棍打，未必能够得到赈济委员会的登记证。吃杂草的毒发而死，吃干树皮的忍不住刺喉绞肠之苦。把妻女驮运到遥远的人肉市场，未必能够换到几斗粮食。”[[:w:冯小刚|冯小刚]]於2012年拍摄的电影《一九四二》讲的正是这段时期发生的故事。

1948年6月[[:w:國共內戰|國共內戰]]期間，[[:w:中共|中共]]将领[[:w:林彪|林彪]]進行[[:w:長春圍城|長春圍城]]，禁止糧食進城，國軍于是收集城內的糧食，造成很多人餓死街頭。10月21日，城內守軍[[:w:鄭洞國|鄭洞國]]投降。活過來的人說，「就喝死人腦瓜殼裡的水，都是蛆。就這麼熬著，盼著，盼開卡子放人。就那麼幾步遠，就那麼瞅著，等人家一句話放生。卡子上天天宣傳，說誰有槍就放誰出去。真有有槍的，真放，交上去就放人。每天都有，都是有錢人，在城裡買了準備好的，都是手槍。咱不知道。就是知道，哪有錢買呀！」參加圍城的中共官兵說：「在外邊就聽說城裡餓死多少人，還不覺怎麼的。從死人堆裡爬出多少回了，見多了，心腸硬了，不在乎了。可進城一看那樣子就震驚了，不少人就流淚了。」&lt;ref&gt;张正隆：《雪白血红》&lt;/ref&gt;

==中華人民共和國==

=== 三年大跃进时期 ===
1959年－1961年「[[:w:大跃进|大躍進]]」期間，中國大陸發生“[[:w:三年困难时期|三年大饑荒]]”，据各方估计共造成1500万-5500万[[:w:非正常死亡|非正常死亡]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|title=The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961|author=|url=https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|first1=XIN|last2=QIAN|first2=NANCY|date=2015-01|journal=Review of Economic Studies|issue=4|doi=10.1093/restud/rdv016|others=|year=|volume=82|page=|pages=1568–1611|pmid=|last3=YARED|first3=PIERRE|archive-date=2019-09-06|url-status=|via=|last1=MENG|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906163322/https://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/pyared/papers/famines.pdf|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:29&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=西方学术界的大跃进饥荒研究|url=http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|author=陈意新|date=2015-01|format=|work=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|publisher=《江苏大学学报》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517052743/http://ww2.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/PaperCollection/webmanager/wkfiles/2012/201503_38_paper.pdf|archive-date=2021-05-17|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|title=SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with Response]|author=Felix Wemheuer|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|date=2011|journal=The China Journal|issue=66|doi=|others=|year=|editor-last=Dikötter|editor-first=Frank|volume=|page=|pages=155–164|issn=1324-9347|pmid=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141524/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262812|archive-date=2020-07-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。餓殍遍野，到處都有餓死倒斃在路邊的人，有些地方甚至出現吃人肉的現象。[[:w:楊繼繩|杨继绳]]所著的《[[:w:墓碑 (书籍)|墓碑]]》一書援引梁志遠的《關於「特種案件」的匯報——安徽亳縣人吃人見聞錄》記載指人吃人並不是個別現象：“其面積之廣，數量之多，時間之長，實屬世人罕見”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=274}}。

1960年春，吃人肉情況不斷發生，人肉的交易市場也隨之出現在城郊、集鎮、農民擺攤等{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008|p=278}}。三年大饑荒的[[:w:口述歷史|口述歷史]]《[[:w:尋找大饑荒倖存者|尋找大饑荒倖存者]]》记载了四十九起人吃人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;rfa&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|title=为当代中国修筑一面“哭墙”--依娃《寻找大饥荒幸存者》|publisher=[[:w:自由亚洲电台|自由亚洲电台]]|date=2014-01-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722001314/https://www.rfa.org/mandarin/pinglun/wenyitiandi-cite/yujie-01082014125845.html|archive-date=2020-07-22|dead-url=no|language=zh|author=余杰|authorlink=余杰}}&lt;/ref&gt;。人吃人事件在[[:w:四川|四川]]、[[:w:甘肅|甘肅]]、[[:w:青海|青海]]、[[:w:西藏|西藏]]、[[:w:陝西|陝西]]、[[:w:寧夏|寧夏]]、[[:w:河北|河北]]、[[:w:遼寧|遼寧]]皆有耳聞，幾乎遍及全國{{cfn|貝克|y=2005}}。據作家[[:w:沙青|沙青]]的[[:w:报告文学|報告文學]]記載：「有一戶農家，吃得只剩了父親和一男一女兩個孩子。一天，父親將女兒趕出門去，等女孩回家時，弟弟不見了，鍋裡浮著一層白花花油乎乎的東西，灶邊扔著一具骨頭。幾天之後，父親又往鍋裡添水，然後招呼女兒過去。女孩嚇得躲在門外大哭，哀求道：『爸爸，別吃我，我給你摟草、燒火，吃了我沒人給你做活。』」&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=依稀大地湾——大饥荒年代|url=https://boxun.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=pmd_cf65954eb189551663c797db8d490efde1f84d97-1626912600-0-gqNtZGzNAg2jcnBszQti|author=沙青|date=2004-12-28|publisher=[[:w:博讯|博讯]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822033646/http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/z_special/2004/12/200412281348.shtml|archive-date=2008-08-22|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''四川'''：《[[:w:中國大饑荒，1958-1962|中國大饑荒，1958-1962]]》引用的中國官方檔案中有吃人記載，如在[[:w:四川省|四川省]][[:w:石柱土家族自治縣|石柱土家族自治縣]]的桥头区，老妇人罗文秀是第一个开始吃人肉的人。在家人一家七口全部死去后，罗文秀把三岁女童马发慧的尸体挖出来。她把小女孩儿的肉割下来，用辣椒调味，然后蒸熟吃掉&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|title=記錄大饑荒人相食的慘劇|publisher=《[[:w:紐約時報|紐約時報]]》|date=2012年9月17日|archive-date=2013年10月23日|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023013637/http://cn.nytimes.com/china/20120917/c17famine/|dead-url=no|author=DIDI KIRSTEN TATLOW|language=zh}}&lt;/ref&gt;。另一份1961年1月27日的文件，讲述了一个四川母亲用毛巾勒死了自己五岁大的儿子，“吃了四顿”。调查者王德明写道，“这样令人震惊的可怕事件远非只有这一起。”&lt;ref name=&quot;紐約時報&quot; /&gt;

* '''河南'''：1959年10月至1960年4月，[[:w:信阳事件|信陽事件]]，[[:w:商丘|商丘]]、[[:w:開封|開封]]餓得人身浮腫，吃樹皮，餓死100萬（到數百萬）人口，時諺：“人吃人，狗吃狗，老鼠餓得啃磚頭。”“信陽五里店村一個14、15歲的小女孩，将4、5歲的弟弟殺死煮了吃了，因爲父母都餓死了，只剩下這兩個孩子，女孩餓得不行，就吃弟弟。”{{cfn|楊繼繩|y=2008}} 河南省[[:w:固始县|固始縣]]官方記載有二百例人吃人事件，縣委以“破壞屍體”為名，逮捕群眾{{cfn|貝克|y=2005|p=180|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=固始縣+二百}}。鹿邑、夏邑、虞城、永城等县共发现吃死人肉的情况20多起。据中央工作组魏震报告，鹿邑县从1959年10月到1960年11月，发现人吃人的事件6起。马庄公社马庄大队庞王庄18岁女子王玉娥于1960年4月19日将堂弟弟5岁的王怀郎溺死煮食，怀郎14岁的亲姐姐小朋也因饥饿吃了弟弟的肉。&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=[杨继绳]《墓碑》――中国六十年代大饥荒纪实. |url=http://|publisher=第54頁 |accessdate=2022-03-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* '''甘肃'''：[[:w:通渭县|通渭縣]]，1958年全縣糧食實產8300多萬斤，虛報1.8億斤。人口大量死亡；有人回憶“1959年11月到臘月，死的人多。老百姓一想那事就要流淚。餓死老人家的，餓死婆娘的，日子過得糊裡糊塗。把人煮了吃，肉割來煮了吃……人甚麼也不想，甚麼也不怕，就想吃，想活。把娃娃、自己的娃娃吃下的，也有；把外面逃到村上的人殺了吃的，也有。吃下自己娃娃的，浮腫，中毒，不像人樣子。有的病死了，也有救下的。吃了娃娃心裡慘的，吃過就後悔了，自己恨自己。在村子里住不下去，沒人理他，嫌他臟。”（《50年代末大飢荒驚人記實》）
* '''青海'''：人吃人事件110多起，漢東公社楊家灘生產隊的婦女竟吃了9個小孩&lt;ref&gt;武文軍:《餓魂祭:中國六十年代饑荒考》，蘭州學刊2005年專輯，蘭州社會科學院主編，p110-110&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''湖南'''：据余习广《吃人饿鬼：[[:w:刘家远惨杀亲子食子案|刘家远惨杀亲子食子案]]》記載，[[:w:湖南|湖南]][[:w:澧县|澧县]]如东公社男子刘家远，將自己儿子殺害後烹煮食用。刘家远也因食子而被處決&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=毛泽东时代惨剧：三年大饥荒饥民十大奇吃|url=https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|publisher=[[:w:共识网|共识网]]|archive-date=2020-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105165243/https://www.dwnews.com/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/59674203/%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%83%A8%E5%89%A7%E4%B8%89%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E9%A5%A5%E8%8D%92%E9%A5%A5%E6%B0%91%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E5%A5%87%E5%90%83|dead-url=no|author=惠风（原作者：彭劲秀）|date=2014-03-11|language=zh|agency=[[:w:多維新聞|多維新聞]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;。
* '''安徽'''：作家[[:w:王立新 (1949年)|王立新]]1980年代曾赴[[:w:凤阳县|凤阳]]采访过，他在报告文学中写道：“梨园乡小岗生产队严俊冒告诉我：1960年，我们村附近有个死人塘，浮埋着许多饿死的人。为什么浮埋？饿得没力气呀，扔几锹土了事。说起来，对不起祖先，也对不起冤魂。人饿极了，什么事都干得出来。我的一位亲戚见人到死人塘割死人的腿肚子吃，她也去了。开始有点怕，后来惯了，顶黑去顶黑回。我问她：‘怎么能……？’她叹息道：‘饿极了。’”&lt;ref&gt;[[:w:李锐 (1917年)|李锐]]《大跃进亲历记》（南方出版社1999年版）&lt;/ref&gt;

=== 文化大革命时期 ===
{{main|:w:广西文革屠杀}}

[[:w:文化大革命|文化大革命]]時期（1966-1976年），[[:w:广西壮族自治区|广西壮族自治区]]除[[:w:广西文革屠杀|私刑、屠杀事件众多]]外，亦傳出多起食人事件&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=不反思“文革”的社会，就是个食人部落|url=http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|author=[[:w:张鸣 (学者)|张鸣]]|date=2013-03-05|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:中国青年报|中国青年报]]》|agency=[[:w:人民网|人民网]]|language=zh|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625141907/http://history.people.com.cn/n/2013/0305/c200623-20680503.html|archivedate=2020-06-25|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=我参与处理广西文革遗留问题|url=http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|accessdate=2019-11-29|author=晏乐斌|date=|format=|work=|publisher=《[[:w:炎黄春秋|炎黄春秋]]》|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207031844/http://www.yhcqw.com/34/8938.html|archive-date=2019-12-07|dead-url=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=广西文革中的吃人狂潮|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=|format=|publisher=[[:w:香港中文大学|香港中文大学]]|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127184237/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605003.pdf|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。作家[[:w:鄭義 (作家)|鄭義]]曾在文革後赴廣西調查，于1993年出版《[[:w:红色纪念碑|红色纪念碑]]》一书，據他的統計廣西全省至少有一千人被食。紀錄片「文革廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]紅衛兵吃人肉事件」評論称：“這些食人事件並不是因為飢荒，而是因為政治運動製造出來的仇恨心態&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |title=文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件 |accessdate=2015-07-25 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316105309/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vR2JhwcEM1A |dead-url=no }}&lt;/ref&gt;”。

其中人食人最厲害的地方之一是廣西[[:w:武宣县|武宣縣]]，官方调查发现至少38人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;，民间研究调查则发现有70余人&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;甚至上百人被吃&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)|url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|accessdate=|author=[[:w:宋永毅|宋永毅]]|date=2011-08-25|format=|publisher=[[:w:巴黎政治学院|巴黎政治学院]]（Sciences Po）|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425062821/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/chronology-mass-killings-during-chinese-cultural-revolution-1966-1976|archive-date=2019-04-25|dead-url=no}}&lt;/ref&gt;。武宣县“一女民兵因参与杀人坚定勇敢，且专吃男人生殖器而臭名远播，并因此入党做官，官至武宣县革委副主任。处遗时期中共中央书记处一天一个电话催问处理结果，并严厉责问：‘像这样的人，为什么还不赶快开除党籍？’但该副主任拒不承认专吃生殖器，只承认一起吃过人。最后的处理是开除党籍，撤销领导职务。现已调离武宣。”{{cfn|鄭義|y=1993|p=74-75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=武宣縣+副主任}}

== 参考文献 ==
=== 引用 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* 王永寬：《中國古代酷刑》
* [[:w:黃文雄 (作家)|黃文雄]]：《中國食人史》
* 黃粹涵：《中國食人史料鈔》
* {{cite book
|author=许汉三
|title=《黃炎培年谱》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
|year=1985年
|publisher=文史资料出版社
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426094608/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2djAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=鄭義
|title=《紅色紀念碑》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
|year=1993年
|publisher=華視文化
|isbn=978-957-572-048-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-26
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426200250/https://books.google.com/books?id=IJBxAAAAIAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|author=楊繼繩
|author-link=楊繼繩
|title=《墓碑——中國六十年代大饑荒紀實 上篇》
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
|year=2008年
|publisher=天地圖書
|isbn=978-988-211-909-3
|ref=harv
|access-date=2021-04-19
|archive-date=2021-04-19
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419003552/https://books.google.com/books?id=GnglAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book 
| author=賈斯柏‧貝克 
| translator=姜和平  
| title=《餓鬼：毛時代大饑荒揭秘》
| publisher=明鏡出版社 
| date=2005年10月 
| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hjpdAAAAIAAJ 
| isbn=978-1-932138-30-6
| ref = {{SfnRef|貝克|2005}}}}
* [[:w:有線電視|有線電視]]財經資訊台《神州穿梭》 「文革廣西武宣縣紅衛兵吃人肉事件」
{{refend}}

== 外部链接 ==
*[[:w:钱理群|钱理群]]：《[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html 钱理群：说“食人”——周氏兄弟改造国民性思想之一]》{{Wayback|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150605170543/http://www.aisixiang.com/data/3951-2.html |date=20150605170543 }}

[[Category:History of China]]</text>
      <sha1>sz2rm9w1m5mb3wqq30ursp1mtbx4e7e</sha1>
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      <text bytes="1428" sha1="mwboc0buaomk0iqu4r2a8fz1j92htg3" xml:space="preserve">== Link to Python script generating the  ==

This script generated the table https://gist.github.com/fnielsen/70069b61da9f7eb09b721e4d82b63710 [[User:Fnielsen|Fnielsen]] ([[User talk:Fnielsen|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fnielsen|contribs]]) 22:40, 27 February 2026 (UTC)

== Ontology, categories and social sciences ==

Summary of a discussion with @[[User:Solstag|Solstag]] :

- Science and technology studies developped by Callon and Latour invite to observe the social world without predefined categories in mind and to allow categories to emerge in a non-rigid way. Wikidata allows for such flexible ontology and category building.  As for what is the ideal ontology, it does not have to be static, the ontology should stay connected to research practices.

- When we do qualitative research (what is called &quot;coding&quot;) we build categories to build our own perspective on our data. We rarely consider that what we do is building a database of data, concepts, categories and relations between them. However, it can be meaningful to share this database with others to help them build their own perspective.

[[User:Jeanne Noiraud|Jeanne Noiraud]] ([[User talk:Jeanne Noiraud|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jeanne Noiraud|contribs]]) 15:43, 4 June 2026 (UTC)

:Thanks for the notes! [[User:Solstag|Solstag]] ([[User talk:Solstag|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Solstag|contribs]]) 21:47, 22 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <comment>/* Posting on talk pages using &quot;Quasi-AI&quot; depending on user preference */ quick note</comment>
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      <text bytes="9764" sha1="mffgfjbpstb9yuvr9onvh0kp4rgxw42" xml:space="preserve">== Main focus: my &quot;idea&quot; ==

* This is my [[Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea]]. There goes the &quot;main effort&quot; based on my other smaller effort in various places and also by using the methodology I one day hope I will make.
* [[User:ThinkingScience/ND_Inspired_Idea_Notebook|Daily Diary of ND Inspired Idea]]
* These are my course notes: [[User:ThinkingScience/Draftspace/Coursera]]

=== Secondary Goals ===

These are secondary goals in no particular order:

* Contribute to Wikiversity by understanding and improving on content:
** I begin with interpreting the [[Neurodiversity Movement]] by creating this subpage: [[User:ThinkingScience/Neurodiversity_Movement_Interpretation]]
* Documenting all &quot;Quasi-AI&quot; inputs and outputs related to a particular action:
** [[User:ThinkingScience/All General AI Prompt History Archive|All General AI Prompt History Archive]]

== Taking responsibility for famous people or people to focus on in [[Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea]] ==

I need to take responsibility for the choices I make. If any of my choices resulted in a harm to a real person I am responsible whether I agree or not to any blame being put on me.

This section may be moved to a sub-page if I think it starts getting too &quot;cluttered&quot; and later into more sub-pages if the list just grows and grows.

=== T ===

==== '''Taylor Swift''' ====

Taylor Swift. Why I chose Taylor Swift. I have watched interviews with her before. She is an interesting person to me. I discovered she is open about her creation process. I value that in human beings and that includes people I meet offline, in the &quot;real world&quot; but it will be a challenge for me to make video notes that are &quot;Do no harm&quot;. I may be &quot;way in over my head&quot;. Please help me if you think I'm doing something wrong. 

She has a dedicated follower base which may have a large influence. Maybe I'll suffer for this but keeping my &quot;idea&quot; locked inside &quot;my head&quot; I think will cause greater harm to me than good. I know what risk I am taking...or probably not but I gotta move forward or try to. Perhaps my fears are greater than real risks in reality but who knows?

==== '''Tom Hanks''' ====

I chose Tom Hanks because I need to move on. In my personal notes I have tens of famous people and not. Now that I'm adding people here I need to adhere to the Wikiversity rules and guidelines so the list will be limited, or will it? 
Maybe it will grow because applying &quot;Do no harm&quot; is a very good foundation considering I am not consciously trying to come up with idea how my comparisons here will do not harm and I think that is healthy for both me and for everyone!

== April 20th experiment, &quot;AI Decisions, sure. AI-generation NEVER&quot; ==

Starting today on April 20th after 08:46 UTC Time(I got UTC time on this computer where I'm so far only using this account), I'll begin by editing Wikiversity resources by being more encouraged by &quot;yeah, do that&quot; comments by Large Language Models.

Nothing of it will be &quot;AI-generated&quot; but the decisions I take: the reason for the decisions I take may be because of &quot;AI-generation&quot; but of course I will try to stay away from clear stupidity like if the AI-generation says &quot;jump off a cliff&quot;. An extreme example, but I wanted to make a point that I won't take any decision and I will question the &quot;AI/LLM&quot; if it suggests something that to me sounds insane.

If you see anything weird please comment on my talk page after you've reverted my edits.

When this experiment ends, I don't have a plan for that yet. User input might help.

This is where I make notes of decisions that may motivate me to do edits in places. It should include both inputs and outputs and what kind of &quot;version&quot; of &quot;AI&quot;s/LLMs I'm using:
* [[/April 20th Experiment Notes|&quot;AI Notes&quot; for motivation purposes in this &quot;experiment&quot;]]

=== Defining the end goal ===

The end goal is supposed to make me make useful edits or being able to make edits or contributions on more than just only the projects I'm &quot;mainly&quot; interested in.

'''Success Criteria'''

* &quot;Did the AI's output lead me to make a useful edit on a page I wouldn't have thought about and/or chosen on my own?&quot;
** This question was modified by myself based on an AI's output(this part was generated by &quot;AI Mode&quot; on May 1, 2026)

== Coursera schedule and notes ==

Today April 16, 2026 my contributions contain a lot of spelling mistakes. They may be present other days too. You'll probably spot spelling mistakes all over.

My studying schedule as I've understood it so far(studying with my mother):

This schedule is not reliable(cause my studying partner keeps changing the time, which is not necessarily bad):

UTC TIME: 07:30 - 09:30 (2 hours a day, 6 hours a week)
* Monday
* Thursday
* Saturday

== I'm studying on Coursera and about their Terms of Use ==
'''Nothing here is legal advice'''. This is very important.
Nothing in this &quot;Wikisection&quot; constitutes legal advice! Please don't blindly follow my advice and if someone copies some parts of this text without providing context then they are responsible for what they share! If you have been tricked by scammers that's sad but I am NOT responsible for illegal activities.

* web.archive.org/web/20260325233813/https://www.coursera.org/about/terms

&quot;When you create your Coursera account, and when you subsequently use certain features, you must provide us with accurate and complete information, and you agree to update your information to keep it accurate and complete.&quot;

My interpretation of that is that on Coursera I have to provide a real name. There is a field for &quot;Full name&quot;(retrieved 2026-04-09 UTC YYYY-MM-DD). How does that correspond to these terms? It doesn't say &quot;Real name&quot; but even if it did, what if I choose a name for myself and I'd like to call myself ThinkingScience? Is it still accurate? 

They don't specify what I actually have to do, just based on my quote. It would be nice for me and other Coursera learners to know what is true. Is the privacy on Wikiversity better? I'd say it is because on Coursera we are forced to provide an email address to create an account. We are not forced to do that on Wikiversity, Wikidata etc.

== notes about this account ==

This account is an alternative account on a computer I don't trust. It should never be allowed to vote and if it does please block this account. Doubling down on this today at 2026-04-30!(intent unchanged)

It's an alt of [[User:Dekatriofovia]] which unfortunately I have to prove right now despite me being in a hurry...so I'll edit my account at Dekatriofovia at the same time almost and publish at the same time...so you know it's me.

The reason for this account is it's on a computer with a bigger screen so I can more easily read books and documents.

== a thing I did not regret(modified section title) ==

This may be blathering but it ends with another Wikilink where I will pass my &quot;idea&quot; through '''Wikiversity:Research ethics''' and through anything else that might be required before anything enters Draft space. The &quot;idea&quot; is &quot;'''The Neurodiversity-inspired idea'''&quot;.

[[Protoscience]] was an interesting read. I think it will be calming for me if my idea is proven to be pseudoscience cause I can stop worrying about it and leave it behind me. &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired idea&quot;(in lack for a better name, for now) will not be published in main space, only in draft space.

[[Wikiversity:Original research]] made me think &quot;I may be way over my head&quot; (though I stumbled around a bit due to not knowing English at an advanced enough level...this parenthesis is about some unimportant trivia).

I'm gonna place everything regarding &quot;The Neurodiversity-inspired idea&quot; into draft space and pass it through '''Wikiversity:Research ethics'''(sorry for repeating myself) and anything else I can find and also ask the community here on Wikiversity what else to place it through.

I thought I was gonna create '''User:ThinkingScience/The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea'''(but turns out I was encouraged to create it in Draft: space ... (this paragraph has been modified. Edit history might keep the original). Here are my notes again which I wanted to link to [[User:ThinkingScience/ND Inspired Idea Notebook]]

'''Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea''' that probably is in line with &quot;be bold&quot;.

=== It happened, a small burden has been lifted ===

I posted to the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium]] https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity:Colloquium&amp;oldid=2805080

Thing may be archive in the future. I've lost many things that way.(but also re-discovered many things that landed in the archive that I had posted too!)

One week. One small burden lifted. It was the only way forward. I may have been driven insane otherwise or this is just a very bad day I'm having. Full of things that &quot;real life&quot; is demanding of me.

More specifically, this is what I posted [[Wikiversity:Colloquium#Advice_needed:_A_Neurodiversity-inspired_Idea/observation]]

== Posting on talk pages using &quot;Quasi-AI&quot; depending on user preference ==

This is a list of users who have told me how they prefer maximum amount of characters/words to be if I post on their talk page using &quot;Quasi-AI&quot;[1](whatever that is since there's no such Q item nor alias on Wikidata right now regarding that term):
* [[User:Juandev]] - max amount of words: 100 as long as it respects [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]]
* [[User:Jtneill]] - no restrictions but advising to read [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]]

== References ==
[1] - https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Is_the_output_of_ChatGPT_copyrighted%3F&amp;oldid=2711065 {{quote|ChatGPT is an automated quasi-AI technology that allows human-like text console interaction online in which a human can ask questions and ChatGPT returns answers.}}</text>
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      <comment>/* May 19, 2026, Tuesday */ == June 22, 2026, Monday == not exactly daily...</comment>
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      <text bytes="8714" sha1="2rjpie6mhyz6kkpkwlmq6c5jf9nlvhx" xml:space="preserve">Template Links:
* {{tl|Draft}}
* {{tl|underconstruction}}

'''On this page I plan to add daily notes regarding [[Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea]].'''

== &quot;Diary&quot; ==

== April 18, 2026 ==

A suggestion I got was that it may help the project if I provide some questions along with the idea. Also to make a main space where I gather info about my progress but that will probably be the draft itself if I move forward. Now if I write a &quot;diary&quot; that will be only regarding the project.

Turned &quot;me language&quot; into expressing that everyone is welcome, that I don't &quot;own&quot; [[Draft:The Neurodiversity-inspired Idea]]. Now everything that says &quot;I did this&quot; &quot;I did that&quot; should be gone. I think this was an improvement of some sort.

Plan for next edits on the draft page: Add an &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot; == Old Methodology needing updating == &quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt; where I will add old methodologies where I had not planned ahead too good and the &quot;Do no harm&quot; I did not know about or could not focus on. That was before I created my own Draft that feels like it only happened some days ago.

Interaction I thought was an efficient method but how would methodology be modified today with what I know now and will know in the future?

== April 20, 2026 ==

Why does it seem like I'm the only one using the word &quot;methodology&quot;? Did the [[Wikiversity:Research ethics]] mention it?
* I cannot find it! I checked all infoboxes! It must have been generated and I probably never questioned it...until now.

== April 21, 2026 ==

I think I put a new subsection on the Draft space something that was related to developing my method/methodology into the &quot;Do no harm&quot;. Considering I have almost not developed anything but I still gotta work on this...to do...

== April 22, 2026 ==

I am yearning / looking forward to working on video notes in a &quot;Do no harm&quot; way. I don't feel like it has happened yet. I did make modifications but it may have increased complexity. A complexity that will make it harder for me to work or just different.

== April 27, 2026 ==

I met with my father and he is a friend of the sciences. One word: hypothesis. He asked what my main hypothesis is. Of course hypothesis is a way to test if the idea is sound or if it's for the trashcan. I'm glad he gave me this feedback or interest in trying to learn more.

Today I woke up being inspired by that:

* Is there a hypothesis or a number of hypotheses related to the idea?
** Can this idea be proven false?

Why it's important to prove a hypothesis false: so that we don't waste time on trash ideas. If they are not provable we give time to the creator of the suggestion/idea to prove make a hypothesis. Only when the creator fails to provide any sort of hypothesis and maybe suggests their own idea be removed because as hard as they tried they couldn't make a functioning hypothesis...then I guess that's one of the more 'natural' ways for a project to more naturally leave Wikiversity.

Deadlines etc. can help me keep moving...

What a hypothesis is: &quot;I predict this will happen&quot; and then checking results what happens and whether it fulfilled the prediction or not and sometimes we stumble upon new things we did not expect.

[[Operationalization]] is then also needed to make &quot;ambiguous ideas&quot; measurable. My father remembers that I &quot;wanted to save the world&quot; but it was nothing other than an observation I wanted to share with other people that I had made that began years earlier. June 16 should be 2 months roughly after the creation of the Draft:Idea...

== April 29, 2026 ==

Just made my father aware of this &quot;idea&quot; that so far doesn't have a published hypothesis of any kind, not even in a &quot;basic stage&quot;. Only the deadline for June 16 exists right now.

I'm happy he did not reject me working on it. He encourages me to work harder. I got a &quot;Great job so far!&quot; compliment.

=== Google's &quot;AI Mode&quot; ===

This part was 100% AI-generated:

{{quote|What you are describing is a core concept in the philosophy of science called Falsification. It was popularized by Karl Popper, who argued that science doesn't progress by &quot;proving things right,&quot; but by rigorously trying to prove things wrong and failing to do so.}}

== April 30, 2026 ==

Was gonna start writing on the Colloquium again and composed a large message to reply/'talk to' Jtneill but I got input from &quot;AI Mode&quot; and then I realized after a while, maybe what I'm trying to ask I can find out with the help of &quot;AI Mode&quot; leading me to the right resources? ie. formatting on talk pages...how important is that? Prioritizing...

Also replying to everything? Is it really needed? Would I like to be known as &quot;Needy ThinkingScience&quot;? I can't do anything on my own? So yeah, I started thinking maybe I can focus on doing more.
Starting by talking less and the tools we have available can fix a lot anyway, LLMs are great but designed in interesting and challenging ways!

Do I even need a mentor or do I '''just think I need one'''? I am very much a needy guy in terms of hand-holding and being related to a social context &quot;historically&quot; in my life, or at least that's what I thought. What I think I need for myself may be completely wrong.

People in talk pages I interpreted as saying that I shouldn't put obstacles in my path by being mean to myself and putting pressure on myself to do certain things in a certain amount of time but I guess I couldn't stop myself! I also need a social context but would I just drag others into my &quot;bad routines&quot;? It all depends on who one interacts with...which now makes me think about &quot;the idea&quot; again. I guess I should see this as a warning sign :)

My father suggested peer-review related activities and here I am looking inward and isolating myself. I don't know...

:I figured today I begin with {{quote|April 20th experiment, &quot;AI Decisions, sure. AI-generation NEVER&quot;}}

== May 5, 2026 ==

Today I became very emotional when thinking about the importance of taking the decision to finally &quot;unload&quot; my idea on and trying to develop it on Wikiversity while talking to a friend. It's important to know when I last felt this deep of an &quot;emotion unload&quot;.

The original question from my friend in the original language: {{quote|&quot;Σκεφτόμουν εάν αυτή η συναισθηματική αντίδραση σου συμβαίνει συχνά ή εάν έτυχε απλώς τώρα στην συνάντησή μας?&quot;}} which I'll translate for you. I was also pondering the &quot;suitability&quot; of adding foreign languages to Wikiversity. It would make sense as long as that is the training material for the course which is in English about learning a foreign language.

The question as I interpret it as of this moment and which may be incorrect is this:

{{quote|I was thinking if this emotional reaction happens to you often or if it just happened now at the meeting?}}

And I think I remember my answer being that it only happened now.

It was very important for me because no longer will only I think about this draft in my own mind but other people can think too about what I describe about it. Any data I can find will also then be able to be studied by contributors or interested parties. So far, no data at all.

My point: Not having to carry this weight anymore. It was too heavy. It was basically too hard for me to formulate &quot;coherent&quot; sentences and only thought about them at brief periods while waking up or during &quot;Aha!&quot; moments.

== May 18, 2026, Monday ==

As I wrote in the diary of my main user account, screen arrived. I can now work.

I will continue work on the translation for my unfinished draft &quot;idea&quot; on the Greek Wikiversity. I'm following the &quot;Be bold&quot;. Translating also means processing, that means that a different &quot;take&quot; on the idea may happen. That may lead to a better formulated text.

== May 19, 2026, Tuesday ==

[[v:el:Χρήστης:ThinkingScience|User ThinkingScience on Greek Wikiversity]]

Today I can work on the translation and other work on Greek Wikiversity regarding my idea. This is good so I can continue the work on explaining to friends and family regarding my &quot;idea&quot;/&quot;observation&quot;. I might work right now...maybe make more notes later today?

== June 22, 2026, Monday ==

I think I'm forced to side-track due to nobody yet having shown interest in learning what my draft is about, nor interacted with me in any meaningful way yet. All initiative has come from me so it's only right it continues to come from me.
In the topic of [[Neurodiversity Movement]] I may begin to contribute.

Well I guess that I managed to contact at least 1 user. Wouldn't hurt with multiple but I guess I have to choose my &quot;battles&quot; and I only had so much &quot;mental energy&quot; for today...and it may sound silly but I need a break now...I think...</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Athena problem</title>
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      <text bytes="50059" sha1="r5t2k9kkrvkw0gfq6oxd78cwovow4gs" xml:space="preserve">{{mathematics}}
'''Athena problem''' is an [[:w:List of unsolved problems in mathematics|unsolved problem]] in [[:w:Number theory|number theory]] and [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] and [[:w:Order theory|order theory]], this problem is named after the ancient Greek goddess [[:w:Athena|Athena]] (which is associated with [[:w:Wisdom|wisdom]]). Athena problem is: Give a [[:w:Natural number|natural number]] ''b'' &gt; 1, find the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the set of the &quot;[[:w:Prime number|prime number]] [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b''&quot; [[:w:Numerical digit|digit]] [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s in the [[:w:Positional numeral system|positional numeral system]] with [[:w:Radix|base]] ''b'' for the [[:w:Subsequence|subsequence]] [[:w:Partially ordered set|ordering]]. (A string ''x'' is a subsequence of another string ''y'', if ''x'' can be obtained from ''y'' by deleting zero or more of the [[:w:Character (computing)|character]]s in ''y''. For example, 514 is a subsequence of 352148, &quot;string&quot; is a subsequence of &quot;meistersinger&quot;. In contrast, 758 is not a subsequence of 378259, &quot;abc&quot; is not a subsequence of &quot;cbacacba&quot;, since the characters must be in the same order) (Unlike [[:w:Substring|substring]], subsequence is not required to occupy consecutive positions within the original sequences, e.g. the [[:w:Longest common subsequence|longest common subsequence problem]] is different from the [[:w:Longest common substring|longest common substring problem]])

Using [[:w:Formal language theory|formal language theory]] terminology, Athena problem is finding the [[:w:Set (mathematics)|set]] of the [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s of the [[:w:Formal language|language]] of base-''b'' [[:w:Representation (mathematics)|representation]]s of the [[:w:Prime number|prime number]]s [[:w:Greater than|&gt;]] ''b'' (which is a set of [[:w:String (computer science)|string]]s of [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s over the [[:w:Alphabet (formal languages)|alphabet]] ''Σ''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; := {0, 1, ..., ''b''−1}), under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), for a given natural number ''b'' &gt; 1. (You can draw this partial ordering as [[:w:Hasse diagram|Hasse diagram]] to find all [[:w:Minimal element|minimal element]]s)

By [[:w:Higman's lemma|Higman's lemma]], there are no [[:w:Infinite set|infinite]] [[:w:Antichain|antichain]]s for the subsequence ordering (i.e. the subsequence ordering is always a [[:w:Well-quasi-ordering|well quasi order]]) (i.e. under the subsequence ordering (i.e. the [[:w:Binary relation|binary relation]] &quot;is a subsequence of&quot;, which is a [[:w:Partially ordered set|partial ordering]]), every set of pairwise incomparable (i.e. not [[:w:Comparability|comparable]]) strings is finite), thus there must be only finitely many such minimal elements. In other words, the set of such minimal elements must be a [[:w:Finite set|finite set]], e.g. in [[:w:Decimal|decimal]] (base ''b'' = 10), this set has exactly 77 [[:w:Element of a set|element]]s: {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}.

For bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36, Athena problem is fully solved in bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 24, and also solved in bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 22, 30 if [[:w:Probable prime|probable prime]]s are allowed. For the unsolved bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, Athena problem is solved (if probable primes are allowed) except 771 [[:w:Indexed family|families]] of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be [[:w:Empty string|empty]]) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') = sequence {''xz'', ''xyz'', ''xyyz'', ''xyyyz'', ''xyyyyz'', ''xyyyyyz'', ...} (i.e. &quot;''xy''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''z''&quot; in [[:w:Regular expression|regular expression]]), all of these 771 families contain no primes &gt; ''b'' or probable primes &gt; ''b'' with length ≤ 100000.

== Solve the problem ==

To solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', we must [[:w:Computing|compute]] the elements up to families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), and find the smallest prime &gt; ''b'' in all such families.

We call families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') &quot;linear&quot; families, and we reduce these families by removing all trailing digits ''y'' from ''x'', and removing all leading digits ''y'' from ''z'', to make the families be easier, e.g. family 12333{3}33345 in base ''b'' is reduced to family 12{3}45 in base ''b'', since they are in fact the same family. Our [[:w:Algorithm|algorithm]] then proceeds as follows:

* 1. ''M'' := {minimal primes in base ''b'' of length 2 or 3}, ''L'' := union of all ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'') such that ''x'' ≠ 0 and ''gcd''(''z'', ''b'') = 1 and ''Y'' is the set of digits ''y'' in base ''b'' such that ''xyz'' has no subsequence in ''M''.
* 2. While ''L'' contains nonlinear families (families which are not linear families): Explore each family of ''L'', and update ''L''. Examine each family of ''L'' by:
* 2.1. Let ''w'' be the shortest string in the family. If ''w'' has a subsequence in ''M'', then remove the family from ''L''. If ''w'' represents a prime, then add ''w'' to ''M'' and remove the family from ''L''.
* 2.2. If possible, simplify the family.
* 2.3. Using the techniques below (covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), check if the family can be proven to only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; ''b''), and if so then remove the family from ''L''.
* 3. Update ''L'', after each split examine the new families as in step 2.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

''M'' := {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991}

''L'' := {2{0,2}1, 2{0,8}7, 3{0,3,6,9}3, 3{0,3,6,9}9, 4{6}9, 5{0,5,8}1, 5{0,2}7, 6{0,3,6,9}3, 6{0,3,4,6,9}9, 7{0,7}7, 8{0,5}1, 8{0}7, 9{0,2,5,8}1, 9{0,3,6,9}3, 9{0,3,4,6,9}9}

and since 2221 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1

and since the family 2{0}1 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

and since 20201 is prime, it follows that the family 2{0}2{0}1 splits into the families 2{0}21 and 22{0}1

221 and 2021 are composites, but 20021 is prime, thus add 20021 to ''L''

none of 221, 2201, 22001, 220001, 2200001 are primes, but 22000001 is prime, thus add 22000001 to ''L''

and since the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 can be proven to contain no primes &gt; base (since all numbers in this family are divisible by 3), it can be removed

etc.

Shrinking the family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'')

* If ''y'' ∈ ''Y'' and the string ''xyyz'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''y''{''Y'' \ ''y''}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and the string ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or has a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.
* If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ∈ ''Y'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ≠ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and both the strings ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' and ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' represent a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'' (in this case, add this prime to the list) or have a subsequence which represents a prime &gt; ''b'' in base ''b'', then ''x''{''Y''}''z'' can be replaced with ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;}''z'' ∪ ''x''{''Y'' \ ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''z''.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* 2221 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,2}1 splits into the two families 2{0}1 and 2{0}2{0}1.
* 227 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 5227, thus the family 5{0,2}7 splits into the two families 5{0}7 and 5{0}2{0}7.
* 449 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 6449, thus the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9.
* Both 5051 and 5501 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 5{0,5}1 splits into the two families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 = {5}1.
* 8501 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 8{0,5}1 splits into the family 8{0}{5}1.
* 887 is a prime &gt; 10, and it is a subsequence of 2887, also 2087 is a prime &gt; 10, thus the family 2{0,8}7 splits into the two families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7.
* 349 and 449 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9349 and 9449, respectively, also 9049, 9649, 9949 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 splits into the two families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 94{0,3,6,9}9.
* 251, 281, 521, 821, 881 are primes &gt; 10, and they are subsequences of 9251, 9281, 9521, 9821, 9881, respectively, also 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes &gt; 10, thus the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 splits into the numbers {91, 901, 921, 951, 981, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801}.

If the methods we have discussed cannot be used to rule out or shrink ''x''{''Y''}''z'' where ''Y'' = {''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then we can replace ''x''{''Y''}''z'' by ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' ∪ ... ∪ ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;{''Y''}''z'' and re-run the methods on this new [[:w:Formal language|language]].

If all remain families are linear families (i.e. of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b''), then we search the smallest (probable) primes in these families and add these primes to the list.

e.g. in decimal (base ''b'' = 10):

* The smallest prime in the family 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027.
* The smallest prime in the family {5}1 is 555555555551.
* The smallest prime in the family 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551, but 8555555555555555555551 is not a minimal element since 555555555551 is a subsequence of 8555555555555555555551.

There is no guarantee that the techniques discussed will ever terminate, but in practice they often do. They are able to determine the set of the minimal elements in base ''b'' for 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 16 and ''b'' = 18, 20, 22, 24, 30. The bases ''b'' = 17, 19, 21, 23, 25 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 29, 31 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 are solved with the exception of 771 families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'').

The following is a &quot;[[:w:Semi-algorithm|semi-algorithm]]&quot; that is guaranteed to solve the Athena problem for a given base ''b'', but it is not so easy to implement:

# ''M'' = ''[[:w:Empty string|∅]]''
# while (''L'' ≠ ''∅'') do
# choose ''x'', a shortest string in ''L''
# ''M'' := ''M'' ∪ {''x''}
# ''L'' := ''L'' − ''sup''({''x''})

In practice, for arbitrary ''L'', we cannot feasibly carry out step 5. Instead, we work with ''L''&amp;#39;, some regular overapproximation to ''L'', until we can show ''L''&amp;#39; = ''∅'' (which implies ''L'' = ''∅''). In practice, ''L''&amp;#39; is usually chosen to be a finite [[:w:Union (set theory)|union]] of sets of the form ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;{''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;}''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where each of ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''L''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is finite. In the case we consider in this project, we then have to determine whether such a family contains a prime or not.

Thus, Athena problem in bases ''b'' around 500 may be [[:w:NP-complete|NP-complete]] or [[:w:NP-hard|NP-hard]], or an [[:w:Undecidable problem|undecidable problem]], or an example of [[:w:Gödel's incompleteness theorems|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] (like the [[:w:Continuum hypothesis|continuum hypothesis]] and the [[:w:Halting problem|halting problem]]).

To solve the Athena problem, we need to determine whether a given family contains a prime. In practice, if family ''x''{''Y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''Y'' is a set of digits in base ''b'') could not be ruled out as only containing composites and ''Y'' contains two or more digits, then a relatively small prime &gt; ''b'' could always be found in this family. Intuitively, this is because there are a large number of small strings in such a family, and at least one is likely to be prime (e.g. there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''−2&lt;/sup&gt; strings of length ''n'' in the family 1{3,7}9, and there are over a thousand strings of length 12 in the family 1{3,7}9, thus it is very impossible that these numbers are all composite). In the case ''Y'' contains only one digit, this family is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'', and there is only a single string of each length &gt; (the length of ''x'' + the length of ''z''), and it is not known if the following [[:w:Decision problem|decision problem]] is recursively solvable (just like [[:w:Sierpiński number|Sierpiński problem]] and [[:w:Riesel number|Riesel problem]], Sierpiński problem and Riesel problem can be generalized to other bases ''b'', in fact, Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' and the Riesel problem in base ''b'' with ''k'' &lt; ''b'', i.e. finding the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (or prove such prime does not exist) with ''k'' &lt; ''b'' (specially, for bases ''b'' such that the conjectured smallest Sierpiński number or the conjectured smallest Riesel number is &lt; ''b'', Athena problem in base ''b'' covers the Sierpiński problem in base ''b'' or the Riesel problem in base ''b'', respectively), since the smallest prime of the form ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and ''k''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 (if exists) must be a minimal element in base ''b''):

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''z'' (may be empty), a digit ''y'', and a base ''b'' (''x'' does not [[:w:Leading zero|start with the digit 0]], ''z'' ends with a digit which [[:w:Coprime integers|coprime]] to ''b'', ''y'' is not 0 if ''x'' is empty, ''y'' is coprime to ''b'' if ''z'' is empty), does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''xy''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''z'' for some ''n'' ≥ 0?

Some families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' by [[:w:Covering set|covering congruence]], [[:w:Factorization of polynomials|algebraic factorization]] (e.g. [[:w:Difference of two squares|difference of two squares]], [[:w:Sum of two cubes|sum of two cubes]], [[:w:Sophie Germain's identity|Sophie Germain's identity of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4×''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]), or combine of them, e.g.

* The base 9 family 2{7}: Always divisible by 2 or 5
* The base 16 family {8}F: Always divisible by 3, 7, or 13
* The base 21 family {7}D: Always divisible by 2, 13, or 17
* The base 23 family {D}GA: Always divisible by 2, 5, 7, 37, or 79
* The base 9 family 3{8}: Can be written as 4×9&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 8 family 1{0}1: Can be written as 8&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1 and can be factored as (2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)
* The base 16 family {4}1: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−49)/15 and can be factored as (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−7) × (2×3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+7) / 15
* The base 16 family {C}D: Can be written as (4×16&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5 and can be factored as (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) × (2×4&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+2×2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 5
* The base 14 family 8{D}: Can be written as 9×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (3×14&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) if ''n'' is even
* The base 12 family {B}9B: Can be written as 12&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−25, it is divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−5) × (12&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+5) if ''n'' is even
* The base 17 family 1{9}: Can be written as (25×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−9)/16, it is divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−3) × (5×17&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+3) / 16 if ''n'' is even
* The base 19 family 1{6}: Can be written as (4×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−1)/3, it is divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and can be factored as (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;−1) × (2×19&lt;sup&gt;''n''/2&lt;/sup&gt;+1) / 3 if ''n'' is even

By the [[:w:Prime number theorem|prime number theorem]], the [[:w:Probability|chance]] that a [[:w:Random number|random]] ''n''-digit base ''b'' number is prime is [[:w:Asymptotic analysis|approximately]] 1/''n'' (more accurately, the chance is approximately 1/(''n''×''ln''(''b'')), where ''ln'' is the [[:w:Natural logarithm|natural logarithm]]). If one conjectures the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' behave similarly (i.e. the numbers ''x''{''y''}''z'' is a [[:w:Pseudorandomness|pseudorandom sequence]]) you would expect [[:w:Harmonic_series (mathematics)|1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... = ∞]] primes of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' (of course, this does not always happen, since some ''x''{''y''}''z'' families can be ruled out to contain no prime &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them), but it is at least a reasonable conjecture in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Hence, the [[:w:Heuristic argument|heuristic argument]] suggests there are always infinitely many primes in family ''x''{''y''}''z'' (where ''x'' and ''z'' are strings (may be empty) of digits in base ''b'', ''y'' is a digit in base ''b'') if it cannot be ruled out to contain no prime or only contain finitely many primes, by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them. However, some families ''x''{''y''}''z'' could not be proven to contain no primes &gt; ''b'' (by covering congruence, algebraic factorization, or combine of them) but no primes &gt; ''b'' could be found in the family, even after searching through numbers with over 100000 digits. In such a case, the only way to proceed is to [[:w:Primality test|test the primality]] of larger and larger numbers of such form and hope a prime is eventually discovered. e.g. the smallest (probable) prime in the family A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4, when written in decimal contains 659677 digits (it is only probable prime, i.e. not definitely prime).

== Data ==

These are the results of the Athena problem in bases 2 ≤ ''b'' ≤ 36 (we stop at base 36 since this base is the maximum base for which it is possible to write the numbers with the [[:w:Symbol|symbol]]s 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 and A, B, C, ..., Z (i.e. the 10 [[:w:Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] and the 26 [[:w:Latin script|Latin letters]]): (some large primes are only probable primes, i.e. not definitely primes, since they are too large to be [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proved]] and [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|neither ''N''−1 nor ''N''+1 can be ≥ 1/3 factored]], all of them pass the [[:w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]] and the [[:w:Strong pseudoprime|strong primality test]] (i.e. the [[:w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]]) with all prime bases ''p'' ≤ 61, however, all primes &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;25000&lt;/sup&gt; for bases ''b'' = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 36 are definitely primes, most of them &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Elliptic curve primality|ECPP proving]], others &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt; are proven primes with [[:w:Pocklington primality test#Extensions and variants|''N''−1 or ''N''+1 proving]])

All numbers are written in base ''b'', [[:w:Senary#Base 36 as senary compression|using A to Z to represent digit values 10 to 35]], &quot;{}&quot; means repeating, e.g. family 12{3}45 means the sequence {1245, 12345, 123345, 1233345, 12333345, 123333345, ...} (where the members are expressed as base ''b'' strings), subscripts are used to indicate repetitions of digits, e.g. 123&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;567 means 123333567 (all subscripts are written in decimal).

Base 2: 1 prime (the largest of which has 2 digits (it is 11, and its value is 3 in decimal)): {11}

Base 3: 3 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 111, and its value is 13 in decimal)): {12, 21, 111}

Base 4: 5 primes (the largest of which has 3 digits (it is 221, and its value is 41 in decimal)): {11, 13, 23, 31, 221}

Base 5: 22 primes (the largest of which has 96 digits (it is 10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13, and its algebraic form is 5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8)): {12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013}

Base 6: 11 primes (the largest of which has 5 digits (it is 40041, and its value is 5209 in decimal)): {11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041}

Base 7: 71 primes (the largest of which has 17 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1, and its algebraic form is (7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2)): {14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331}

Base 8: 75 primes (the largest of which has 221 digits (it is 4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7, and its algebraic form is (4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7)): {13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447}

Base 9: 151 primes (the largest of which has 1161 digits (it is 30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11, and its algebraic form is 3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10)): {12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011}

Base 10: 77 primes (the largest of which has 31 digits (it is 50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27, and its algebraic form is 5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27)): {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}

Base 11: 1068 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;), the largest of which has 62669 digits (it is 57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is (57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel11 Data of Athena problem base 11]

Base 12: 106 primes (the largest of which has 42 digits (it is 40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77, and its algebraic form is 4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91)): {11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077}

Base 13: 3197 primes (including 4 unproven probable primes: C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C, 80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111, 95&lt;sub&gt;197420&lt;/sub&gt;, A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A), the largest of which has 592199 digits (it is A3&lt;sub&gt;592197&lt;/sub&gt;A, and its algebraic form is (41×13&lt;sup&gt;592198&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel13 Data of Athena problem base 13]

Base 14: 650 primes, the largest of which has 19699 digits (it is 4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel14 Data of Athena problem base 14]

Base 15: 1284 primes, the largest of which has 157 digits (it is 7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97, and its algebraic form is (15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel15 Data of Athena problem base 15]

Base 16: 2347 primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;, 4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD, 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF), the largest of which has 116139 digits (it is 3&lt;sub&gt;116137&lt;/sub&gt;AF, and its algebraic form is (16&lt;sup&gt;116139&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel16 Data of Athena problem base 16]

Base 17: 10415 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 12 unsolved families (1{7}, 1F{0}7, 4{7}A, 70F{0}D, 8{B}9, 9{5}9, A{D}F, B{0}B3, {B}E9, {B}EE, F1{9}, FD0{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel17 Data of Athena problem base 17] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left17 Data of unsolved families for base 17]

Base 18: 549 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5, and its algebraic form is 12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel18 Data of Athena problem base 18]

Base 19: 31417 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 17 unsolved families (4B5{0}H, {5}3, 5{H}05, 5{H}0H, 5{H}5, 66{B}, 71{0}177, 7AF{0}H, 97{0}3, C{H}C, EE1{6}, F{7}5, F{B}G, F{D}F, H0F{0}7A, HB{0}5B5, II{D}, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel19 Data of Athena problem base 19] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left19 Data of unsolved families for base 19]

Base 20: 3314 primes, the largest of which has 6271 digits (it is G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D, and its algebraic form is 16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel20 Data of Athena problem base 20]

Base 21: 13386 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 8 unsolved families (5{0}DJ, {9}D, B3{0}EB, B{H}6H, C{F}0K, {F}35, G{0}FK, H{0}7771, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel21 Data of Athena problem base 21] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left21 Data of unsolved families for base 21]

Base 22: 8003 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5), the largest of which has 22003 digits (it is BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5, and its algebraic form is (251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel22 Data of Athena problem base 22]

Base 23: 65178 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 87 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel23 Data of Athena problem base 23] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left23 Data of unsolved families for base 23]

Base 24: 3409 primes, the largest of which has 8134 digits (it is N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN, and its algebraic form is 13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel24 Data of Athena problem base 24]

Base 25: 133639 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 85 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel25 Data of Athena problem base 25] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left25 Data of unsolved families for base 25]

Base 26: 25256 known primes (including 7 unproven probable primes: 5&lt;sub&gt;19391&lt;/sub&gt;6F, 7&lt;sub&gt;20279&lt;/sub&gt;OL, LD0&lt;sub&gt;20975&lt;/sub&gt;7, 6K&lt;sub&gt;23300&lt;/sub&gt;5, J0&lt;sub&gt;44303&lt;/sub&gt;KCB, M0&lt;sub&gt;61186&lt;/sub&gt;2BB, 85M&lt;sub&gt;197060&lt;/sub&gt;B) and 3 unsolved families ({A}6F, {H}MH, {I}GL, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel26 Data of Athena problem base 26]

Base 27: 102852 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 44 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel27 Data of Athena problem base 27] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left27 Data of unsolved families for base 27]

Base 28: 25528 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: N6&lt;sub&gt;24051&lt;/sub&gt;LR, 5OA&lt;sub&gt;31238&lt;/sub&gt;F, O4O&lt;sub&gt;94535&lt;/sub&gt;9) and 1 unsolved family (O{A}F, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 709070, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel28 Data of Athena problem base 28]

Base 29: 355242 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 125 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel29 Data of Athena problem base 29] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left29 Data of unsolved families for base 29]

Base 30: 2619 primes (including 1 unproven probable prime: I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D), the largest of which has 34206 digits (it is OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;, and its algebraic form is 25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel30 Data of Athena problem base 30]

Base 31: 569323 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 77 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel31 Data of Athena problem base 31] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left31 Data of unsolved families for base 31]

Base 32: 168882 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 120 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel32 Data of Athena problem base 32] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left32 Data of unsolved families for base 32]

Base 33: 280012 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 81 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel33 Data of Athena problem base 33] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left33 Data of unsolved families for base 33]

Base 34: 184785 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 47 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel34 Data of Athena problem base 34] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left34 Data of unsolved families for base 34]

Base 35: 720002 known primes (including many unproven probable primes) and 60 unsolved families (no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 100000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel35 Data of Athena problem base 35] and [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/left35 Data of unsolved families for base 35]

Base 36: 35286 known primes (including 3 unproven probable primes: 7K&lt;sub&gt;26567&lt;/sub&gt;Z, S0&lt;sub&gt;75007&lt;/sub&gt;8H, P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ) and 4 unsolved families (B{0}EUV, HM{0}N, N{0}YYN, O{L}Z, no primes or probable primes with length ≤ 200000, nor can be proven to only contain composites), see [https://raw.githubusercontent.com/xayahrainie4793/minimal-elements-of-the-prime-numbers/main/kernel36 Data of Athena problem base 36]

== The fully proof of Athena problem in decimal (base ''b'' = 10) ==

'''Bold''' for the minimal elements, ''x'' ◁ ''y'' means ''x'' is a subsequence of ''y''.

Assume ''p'' is a prime &gt; 10, and the last digit of ''p'' must lie in {1,3,7,9}.

Case 1: ''p'' ends with 1.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''1. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7, then (respectively) '''11''' ◁ ''p'', '''31''' ◁ ''p'', '''41''' ◁ ''p'', '''61''' ◁ ''p'', or '''71''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 8, or 9.

Case 1.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''1. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''251''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''281''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 29 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''2221''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 2''z''2''w''1, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''20201''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 22{0}1 is '''22000001'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 2{0}21 is '''20021'''.

Case 1.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''521''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 59 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 5, or 8.

If 05 ◁ ''y'', then '''5051''' ◁ ''p''. If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''5081''' ◁ ''p''. If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''5501''' ◁ ''p''. If 58 ◁ ''y'', then '''5581''' ◁ ''p''. If 80 ◁ ''y'', then '''5801''' ◁ ''p''. If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''5851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ {8}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 6, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' ∈ {5}, then ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{5}1 is '''555555555551'''.

If ''y'' ∈ {8}, since if 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',8}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {51,581}, but 51 and 581 are both composite.

Case 1.3: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write p = 8''y''1. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''821''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''881''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then 89 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 5.

If 50 ◁ ''y'', then '''8501''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0}{5}.

If 005 ◁ ''y'', then '''80051''' ◁ p. Hence we may assume y ∈ {0} ∪ {5} ∪ 0{5}.

If y ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 8{0}1. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ {5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 5, 55, 555, 5555, 55555, 555555, 5555555, 55555555, 555555555, 5555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {81, 851, 8551, 85551, 855551, 8555551, 85555551, 855555551, 8555555551, 85555555551, 855555555551}, but all of these numbers are composite.

If y ∈ 0{5}, since if 55555555555 ◁ ''y'', then 555555555551 ◁ ''p'', hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0, 05, 055, 0555, 05555, 055555, 0555555, 05555555, 055555555, 0555555555, 05555555555}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {801, 8051, 80551, 805551, 8055551, 80555551, 805555551, 8055555551, 80555555551, 805555555551, 8055555555551}, and of these numbers only 80555551 and 8055555551 are primes, but 80555551 ◁ 8055555551, thus only '''80555551''' is a minimal element.

Case 1.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''1. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''991''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0, 2, 5, or 8.

If 00 ◁ ''y'', then '''9001''' ◁ ''p''. If 22 ◁ ''y'', then '''9221''' ◁ ''p''. If 55 ◁ ''y'', then '''9551''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 881 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at most one 0, at most one 2, at most one 5, and at most one 8.

If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and does not contain any of {2,5,8}, then ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'',0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {91,901}, but 91 and 901 are both composite. If ''y'' only contains at most one 0 and only one of {2,5,8}, then the sum of the digits of ''p'' is divisible by 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains at least two of {2,5,8}.

If 25 ◁ ''y'', then 251 ◁ ''p''. If 28 ◁ ''y'', then 281 ◁ ''p''. If 52 ◁ ''y'', then 521 ◁ ''p''. If 82 ◁ ''y'', then 821 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains no 2's (since if ''y'' contains 2, then ''y'' cannot contain either 5's or 8's, which is a contradiction).

If 85 ◁ ''y'', then '''9851''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {58,580,508,058}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {9581,95801,95081,90581}, and of these numbers only 95801 is prime, but 95801 is not a minimal element since 5801 ◁ 95801.

Case 2: ''p'' ends with 3.

In this case we can write p = ''x''3. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''13''' ◁ ''p'', '''23''' ◁ ''p'', '''43''' ◁ ''p'', '''53''' ◁ ''p'', '''73''' ◁ ''p'', or '''83''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3: ''p'' ends with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''7. If ''x'' contains 1, 3, 4, 6, or 9, then (respectively) '''17''' ◁ ''p'', '''37''' ◁ ''p'', '''47''' ◁ ''p'', '''67''' ◁ ''p'', or '''97''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 2, 5, 7, or 8.

Case 3.1: ''p'' begins with 2.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 2''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''227''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''257''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''277''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 8.

If 08 ◁ ''y'', then '''2087''' ◁ ''p''. If 88 ◁ ''y'', then 887 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0} ∪ 8{0}.

If ''y'' ∈ {0}, then ''p'' ∈ 2{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 9, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If y ∈ 8{0}, then ''p'' ∈ 28{0}7. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 40&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;1 = 280&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7.

Case 3.2: ''p'' begins with 5.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 5''y''7. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''557''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''577''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''587''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 2.

If 22 ◁ ''y'', then 227 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' contains zero or one 2's.

If ''y'' contains no 2's, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 12, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

If ''y'' contains exactly one 2, then we can write ''p'' = 5''z''2''w''7, where ''z'',''w'' ∈ {0}. If 0 ◁ ''z'' and 0 ◁ ''w'', then '''50207''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume either ''z'' or ''w'' is empty.

If ''z'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 52{0}7 is '''5200007'''.

If ''w'' is empty, then ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 5{0}27 is '''5000000000000000000000000000027'''.

Case 3.3: ''p'' begins with 7.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 7''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''727''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''757''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''787''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 7, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0 or 7. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 7, ''p'' is divisible by 7, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 3.4: ''p'' begins with 8.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 8''y''7. If 2 ◁ ''y'', then '''827''' ◁ ''p''. If 5 ◁ ''y'', then '''857''' ◁ ''p''. If 7 ◁ ''y'', then '''877''' ◁ ''p''. If 8 ◁ ''y'', then '''887''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {0}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 8{0}7. But then, since the sum of the digits of ''p'' is 15, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime.

Case 4: ''p'' ends with 9.

In this case we can write ''p'' = ''x''9. If ''x'' contains 1, 2, 5, 7, or 8, then (respectively) '''19''' ◁ ''p'', '''29''' ◁ ''p'', '''59''' ◁ ''p'', '''79''' ◁ ''p'', or '''89''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 4, 6, or 9.

If 44 ◁ ''x'', then '''449''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''x'' contains zero or one 4's.

If x contains no 4's, then all digits of ''x'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9, and thus all digits of ''p'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. But then, since the digits of ''p'' all have a common factor 3, ''p'' is divisible by 3, so ''p'' cannot be prime. Hence we may assume that ''x'' contains exactly one 4.

Case 4.1: ''p'' begins with 3.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 3''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. We must have '''349''' ◁ ''p''.

Case 4.2: ''p'' begins with 4.

In this case we can write ''p'' = 4''y''9, where all digits of ''y'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''409''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''499''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 4{6}9. But then ''p'' is divisible by 7, since for ''n'' ≥ 0 we have 7 × 6&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;7 = 46&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;9.

Case 4.3: ''p'' begins with 6.

In this case we can write p = 6''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''z'', then '''6469''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' is empty.

If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''6949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume all digits of ''y'' are 0 or 6.

If 06 ◁ ''y'', then '''60649''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {6}{0}.

If 666 ◁ ''y'', then '''666649''' ◁ ''p''. If 00000 ◁ ''y'', then '''60000049''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' ∈ {''𝜆'', 0, 00, 000, 0000, 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60000, 66, 660, 6600, 66000, 660000}, and thus ''p'' ∈ {649, 6049, 60049, 600049, 6000049, 6649, 66049, 660049, 6600049, 66000049, 66649, 666049, 6660049, 66600049, 666000049}, and of these numbers only '''66000049''' and '''66600049''' are primes.

Case 4.4: ''p'' begins with 9.

In this case we can write p = 9''y''4''z''9, where all digits of ''y'', ''z'' are 0, 3, 6, or 9. If 0 ◁ ''y'', then '''9049''' ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''y'', then 349 ◁ ''p''. If 6 ◁ ''y'', then '''9649''' ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''y'', then '''9949''' ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''y'' is empty.

If 0 ◁ ''z'', then 409 ◁ ''p''. If 3 ◁ ''z'', then 43 ◁ ''p''. If 9 ◁ ''z'', then 499 ◁ ''p''. Hence we may assume ''z'' ∈ {6}, and thus ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9, and the smallest prime ''p'' ∈ 94{6}9 is 946669.

[[Category:Number theory]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>2816515</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T02:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidMCEddy</username>
        <id>218607</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>postponed</comment>
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      <text bytes="6202" sha1="3p5e6ng855qse8qbmn11x7fafe7qg46" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a postponed interview with Dimitar Zagorski&lt;ref name=Dimi&gt;&lt;!--Dimitar Zagorski, 3rd--&gt;{{cite Q|Q130719781}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the European Commission's targeted public consultation on copyright law, including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is&lt;!--released 2026-06-27--&gt; eventually released to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;
{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.webm|thumb|2026-06-18 interview with Dimi Zagorski about Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-18 interview with Dimi Zagorski about Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.]]--&gt; 

Dimitar (&quot;Dimi&quot;) Zagorski, 3rd.,&lt;ref name=Dimi/&gt; discusses the European Commission's targeted public consultation on copyright law and other issues that concern the Wikimedia Foundation including AI, scientific research, and the statutory review of the 2019 [[w:Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market|Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market]]. Zagorski is Policy Director for Wikimedia Europe in Brussels. He is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As background for this interview, we review the structure of the government of the [[w:European Union|European Union]] (EU).

== European Union ==

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states located primarily in Europe with [[w:Special territories of members of the European Economic Area|32 special territories]] or subnational units of EU member states stretching from [[w:Greenland|Greenland]] to the southern Indian ocean and the South Pacific. The EU has a population of over 450 million and nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around €19 trillion in 2025; this makes it roughly one sixth of the global economy. The [[w:Institutions of the European Union|Institutions of the European Union]] encompass seven principal decision-making bodies:

# [[w:European Parliament|European Parliament]], whose approval is required for proposed legislation to become law. It currently has 720 members (MEPs). It functions roughly like the [[w:United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives in the US]], in that MEPs can amend or reject proposed legislation, though they cannot initiate legislation. 
# [[w:European Council|European Council]] of heads of state or government.
# [[w:Council of the European Union|Council of the European Union]], often referred to simply as the Council and less formally as the &quot;Council of Ministers&quot;. This is a legislative body, which works with the European Parliament to amend and approve or veto proposals of the European Commission, which holds the right of initiative; neither the Council nor the Parliament can initiate legislation. The Presidency of the council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government and rotates every six months. It functions roughly like the [[w:United States Senate|Senate in the US]] but cannot initiate legislation. 
# [[w:European Commission|European Commission]] (EC), the executive cabinet of the European Union. Currently, there is one Commissioner per member state, including the president (currently [[w:Ursula von der Leyen|Ursula von der Leyen]]), but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. All EU legislation must be initiated by the Commission, to be amended and approved or vetoed by the European Parliament and the Council. 
# [[w:Court of Justice of the European Union|Court of Justice of the European Union]].
# [[w:European Central Bank|European Central Bank]]. 
# [[w:European Court of Auditors|European Court of Auditors]]. 

== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

&lt;!--== Bibliography ==--&gt;
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Wikimedia]]
[[Category:Wikimedia Foundation]]
[[Category:Wikimedia Foundation staff]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
&lt;!--list of categories
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review
[[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--&gt;</text>
      <sha1>3p5e6ng855qse8qbmn11x7fafe7qg46</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2816598</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-23T11:28:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidMCEddy</username>
        <id>218607</id>
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      <comment>fix dates</comment>
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      <text bytes="6177" sha1="e33oie0g8w3elu78ls6t5geu6w00igz" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-07-01 interview with Dimitar Zagorski&lt;ref name=Dimi&gt;&lt;!--Dimitar Zagorski, 3rd--&gt;{{cite Q|Q130719781}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the European Commission's targeted public consultation on copyright law, including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;
{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.webm|thumb|2026-06-18 interview with Dimi Zagorski about Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-18 interview with Dimi Zagorski about Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research.]]--&gt; 

Dimitar (&quot;Dimi&quot;) Zagorski, 3rd.,&lt;ref name=Dimi/&gt; discusses the European Commission's targeted public consultation on copyright law and other issues that concern the Wikimedia Foundation including AI, scientific research, and the statutory review of the 2019 [[w:Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market|Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market]]. Zagorski is Policy Director for Wikimedia Europe in Brussels. He is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As background for this interview, we review the structure of the government of the [[w:European Union|European Union]] (EU).

== European Union ==

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states located primarily in Europe with [[w:Special territories of members of the European Economic Area|32 special territories]] or subnational units of EU member states stretching from [[w:Greenland|Greenland]] to the southern Indian ocean and the South Pacific. The EU has a population of over 450 million and nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around €19 trillion in 2025; this makes it roughly one sixth of the global economy. The [[w:Institutions of the European Union|Institutions of the European Union]] encompass seven principal decision-making bodies:

# [[w:European Parliament|European Parliament]], whose approval is required for proposed legislation to become law. It currently has 720 members (MEPs). It functions roughly like the [[w:United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives in the US]], in that MEPs can amend or reject proposed legislation, though they cannot initiate legislation. 
# [[w:European Council|European Council]] of heads of state or government.
# [[w:Council of the European Union|Council of the European Union]], often referred to simply as the Council and less formally as the &quot;Council of Ministers&quot;. This is a legislative body, which works with the European Parliament to amend and approve or veto proposals of the European Commission, which holds the right of initiative; neither the Council nor the Parliament can initiate legislation. The Presidency of the council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government and rotates every six months. It functions roughly like the [[w:United States Senate|Senate in the US]] but cannot initiate legislation. 
# [[w:European Commission|European Commission]] (EC), the executive cabinet of the European Union. Currently, there is one Commissioner per member state, including the president (currently [[w:Ursula von der Leyen|Ursula von der Leyen]]), but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. All EU legislation must be initiated by the Commission, to be amended and approved or vetoed by the European Parliament and the Council. 
# [[w:Court of Justice of the European Union|Court of Justice of the European Union]].
# [[w:European Central Bank|European Central Bank]]. 
# [[w:European Court of Auditors|European Court of Auditors]]. 

== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

&lt;!--== Bibliography ==--&gt;
[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Wikimedia]]
[[Category:Wikimedia Foundation]]
[[Category:Wikimedia Foundation staff]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
&lt;!--list of categories
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review
[[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--&gt;</text>
      <sha1>e33oie0g8w3elu78ls6t5geu6w00igz</sha1>
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    <title>User talk:~2026-36078-04</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
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      <id>2816439</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T12:09:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2888076</id>
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      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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== 2026-06-22 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-36078-04|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1782130187575.4s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:09, 22 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>User talk:~2026-33927-78</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>330289</id>
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      <id>2816441</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-22T12:10:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
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      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="815" sha1="l53i3pehxrsjxj5xzw2kq6bqlokqd5i" xml:space="preserve">

== 2026-06-22 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-33927-78|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1782130212317.2s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 22 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
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        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
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      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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== 2026-06-22 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Acivelife123|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1782130507493.8s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:15, 22 June 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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|Date=2026-06-22
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
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|Date=2026-06-22
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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  <page>
    <title>Peace Economy Project</title>
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      <text bytes="26117" sha1="7wp5y6sl4owke03p7dt1v40jbv38bzu" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290658}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the Peace Economy Project,&lt;ref name=PEP&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290765}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.webm|thumb|2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 

Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon/&gt; describes the Peace Economy Project (PEP),&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt;, their vision and activities. Canyon is PEP's Executive Director. She holds a BA from [[w:Saint Louis University|Saint Louis University]] and a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD) from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School]].&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon: Poet, Spoken Word Artist--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291133}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her publications include two recent books of poetry&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2021); Canyon and Canyon (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; a novel,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (in preparation).&lt;/ref&gt; and numerous shorter pieces of political commentary disseminated in a variety of outlets. 

PEP works to &quot;Cut Military Spending. Fund Human Needs. They are &quot;guided by the belief that true security is built through care, dignity, and a shared well-being—not punishment, militarization, or fear.&quot; Their work is grounded in 8 core values: 
# Human Dignity.
# Nonviolence.
# Peaceful and Civic Engagement.
# Community Safety Over Militarization.
# Accountability and Transparency.
# Care-Centered Policy.
# Solidarity Across Difference.
# Thoughtful, Strategic Action.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project Core Values--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291167}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Highlights ==

:''These excerpts are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.''

When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, Canyon said, {{quote|

I would like to communicate to our audience the importance of media literacy. Especially I'd like to talk to poets and other creative influencers in ways of participating in making sure that events in this world are properly and truthfully documented. ... 

I'm much influenced by the poet [[w:Muriel Rukeyser|Muriel Rukeyser]], who was a documentary poet in the early to mid 20th century. She would use her poetics to talk about events that she witnessed, particularly when it had to do with minors and the health effects that they were facing when going into the mines. Many of them were dying. So Muriel Rockeyser wrote beautiful poems about the experience in order to open up dialog and to reveal what was going on with these people, who would not have been represented otherwise. 

They were being overshadowed by corporate structures that also controlled the media, and at times poetry is the way to get through to people. When you look at what happens during wars, it's often poets who stand out and express themselves either through poetry or through independent media.}}

Graves asked if the best known poets might partner with musicians? 

Canyon agreed. &quot;That is true. A lot of poems are musical. And ... a lot of songs are musical. From soft alternative music to heavy metal to rap music, it's all poetics. And they all bear a certain level of truth. You can also say that song makers are the most known truth tellers that we have right now.&quot; 

Graves mentioned [[w:Bob Dylan|Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[w:The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll|Hattie Carroll was a maid in the kitchen]]&quot;.

=== Peace Economy Project ===

Graves then asked for an overview of the &quot;Peace Economy Project&quot;,&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; Canyon said, {{quote|

The Peace Economy Project is an organization that's been around since 1977. It started in [[w:St. Louis|St. Louis]]. One of the founders is still on our board today, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140309851}}&lt;/ref&gt; She and a group of citizens of St. Louis were having issues with what was going on with [[w:McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas]], now [[w:Boeing|Boeing]]. They were against weapons manufacturing in their city of St. Louis. So they protested that. From there, the Peace Economy Project grew. A lot of our focus is primarily on St. Louis in Missouri, but we decided that what we face locally, every state in this country faces ... . 

We decided that in order to impact our cities that we needed to not only focus locally but we needed to also focus nationally. We do this through our fellowship programs. We train fellows to do research. Like I said, truth and documentary poetics. But any way of researching and documenting the truth is very important to our mission, which is to educate the public on the effects of an unchecked military industrial complex. We take a lot of college fellows. Sometimes we will take on a high school fellow, but most are college and grad school. 

They will research different areas in order to look into the impact that the military has on different parts of our life. A lot of our fellows investigate environmental impacts that the military has on their areas. We have fellows from St. Louis, obviously, but we also have fellows that live in New York. We have some in Italy. We have fellows in France. 

They're all over the world, and they are investigating the impact that the United States has on their countries and on their communities.}} 

=== ''Warheads to Windmills'' ===

Graves mentioned [[w:Timmon Wallis|Timmon Wallis]] and his work on ''Warheads to Windmills''.&lt;ref&gt;Wallis (2018, 2023)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For example, with the [[w:Kansas City National Security Campus|nuclear bomb plant in Kansas City]], the United States and the public would benefit more if the people doing that work were instead facilitating the transformation to a post-fossil fuel economy.&quot; 

Canyon agreed. &quot;If they were investing in environmental sustainability instead of putting together warheads, ... that would be a better investment ... . I have numerous fellows that work on this. A lot of our fellows are environmental students. They understand the concept of a peace economy that if we just give people a means of meeting their basic human needs, a good portion of our problems would just go away.&quot; 

=== Biggest successes === 

Graves asked about their biggest successes so far. Canyon replied, {{quote|

I would say that our major successes have to do with educating people, especially our fellows. They are the ones that are going to be making decisions 20 years from now. We get fellows from [[w:Yale University|Yale]], from [[w:Rutgers University|Rutgers]], from major universities around the world, [[w:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]]. ...

I'm not saying that the military is completely unnecessary. I hope that it will be one day, but I'm not saying that's the case today. But we are saying that the way that they're going about it right now is extreme, we should not be investing as much money as we do in the military.}}

=== &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot; ===

Graves noted that a lead article on their website describes, &quot;Record Pentagon spending, diminished security, a $1.5 trillion warning&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-05).&lt;/ref&gt; and asked about that. Canyon replied, {{quote|

&quot;This presidency has exceeded any other presidency in military spending. Each time they go to Congress, they say it's for more security, but we are just getting more entrenched in battles. 

[[w:United States withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal|President Obama had an agreement with Iran that President Trump tore up]]. We are battling them today because of the ignorance of that agreement. Now they're negotiating, and they're probably going to end up with close to the same agreement that was dismissed by the early Trump presidency.}}

=== &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians&quot; ===

Graves mentioned another article on their website that mentioned the Patriot missiles.&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-03) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Graves noted that one of the books by Robin Andersen&lt;ref&gt;[[Media and war|Andersen was interviewed]] for this [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy|Media &amp; Democracy]] series 2026-03-27.&lt;/ref&gt; says that the introduction of the Patriot missiles, so-called anti-missile missiles, during the [[w:Gulf War|First Persian Gulf War]] actually did more damage than good, because the debris from the Scud missiles was scattered over a wider area with debris from the Patriots actually destroying more property and killing more people.&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006, pp. 178-179) quotes MIT prof [[w:Theodore Postol|Postol]] (1991-92).&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;I actually did a report on that back in 2012, when I was a fellow for the Peace Economy Project. It's true that we invest in these weapon systems, and a lot of the time we put all of this money into these weapons, and not only are they ineffective, most of the time, they impact our environment in significant ways.&quot; 

Graves affirmed, &quot;Yeah, worse than worse than useless: They're counterproductive.&quot; 

=== Media sell changes in audience behaviors ===

Graves then asked, &quot;To what extent is it fair to say that every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;It's likely more accurate to say that, &quot;Every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media.&quot; This is discussed further in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;A part of me wants to believe in the media. As a communications major and a poet who just finished her MFA in creative writing, I want to believe that the media wants to give the public the truth. But at the end of the day, media empires are businesses. They are going to go where the money is. They're going to want to do what they need to survive. I believe that there are very few organizations that aren't pandering to those who give them money. The only way to avoid that is to have a media that does not depend on major corporate support or on special interests.&quot; 

Graves continued, &quot;I've interviewed [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|Victor Picard]], who recommends local news nonprofits, maybe multi local multimedia centers funded locally with firewalls that prevent political interference. Boards of directors may be selected at random, like jury duty, and with regular, maybe monthly, meetings, where they invite public input to help journalists select better topics, and maybe recruit volunteer researchers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pickard (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;I think there does need to be a better investment in peer review and a better investment into local economies, such that the media isn't controlled solely by one ruling class or one ruling entity. I'm truly in favor of local investment. I think that is one significant way to support true documentary media. On top of that, I think that peer review is another way to make sure that happens.&quot; 

=== Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.===

Graves continued, &quot;My research in this area suggests that primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.&lt;ref&gt;This is a &quot;[[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claim]]&quot; of the book-in-progress on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which provides substantial documentation to support this claim.&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon replied, {{quote|

I think that is also true. You want to believe things that are closer to your own experience, so it is very challenging for people who don't have that experience to believe that another experience is true. 

It happens a lot with my poetry when I travel and I read about the experiences that happened to me in my childhood. Quite often, people will come to me and say, &quot;Did that really happen to you?&quot; 

While, if I am in an audience where either we're mostly women or women of color, they'll come up to me and say, &quot;Thank you for writing that. It is very similar to my own experience.&quot; 

It is hard for people to believe things that are outside their sphere. That's why things like what's happening in the [[w:Middle East|Middle East]] is so hard for people to grasp. Here in the United States, we do not understand what it means to have your homes bombed. Or to be chased out of your own home. We don't understand the idea that you need to leave your country. So that is why immigration is such a hot button issue. 

That is why investing in military support is such a hot button issue, because we don't understand what it is to be in those situations.}} 

=== ''Black Like Me'' ===

Graves noted that his grandmother was deeply moved by the book ''[[w:Black Like Me|Black Like Me]]'', which came out in the early part of the civil rights movement.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1961).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon said, &quot;There's a book called ''Empathy and the Novel'', which talks about how fiction and literature move people, and how much can a novel or how much can a poem move someone? Can it move them toward action?&lt;ref&gt;Keen (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Graves continued, &quot;That book was written by apparently a white guy who took some kind of medication to turn his skin dark and traveled throughout the [[w:Southern United States|South]], and wrote about his experiences -- a white guy being treated like an African American. That book had, apparently, a pretty decent impact on a lot of folks. 

Canyon replied, &quot;I can see how that would, because he's the same person, except his skin is different. So he was able to say, &quot;I went through this situation as a white guy, and it was fine. But when I changed the color of my skin, it was a different situation.&quot;

=== MALD and MFA === 

Graves noted that Canyon has a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100606027}} (MALD).&lt;/ref&gt; from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]]. He asked her to talk about that. 

Canyon said, {{quote|

I do have a Master of Art in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School, and I also have a [[w:Master of Fine Arts|Master of Fine Arts]], which I just earned about a week ago from [[w:Mississippi University for Women|Mississippi University for Women]] in creative writing. 

It was challenging for me when I decided to pursue international studies with Fletcher, because I have this need to be a journalist. Truth is very important to me. Ever since I was a child, and I used to watch ''[[w:Lou Grant (TV series)|Lou Grant]]'', I wanted to be a journalist that investigated stories and reported the truth to people and help people understand what's going on in the world. But I'm also a poet, so I had those competing drivers. There is one school that would have done that for me, where I could have studied both journalism and poetry: It was [[w:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]. But I didn't go to Dartmouth. I decided to go to Fletcher, and that was a tremendous experience for me. It was hard. It was very challenging. 

You learned a lot about how the mechanisms work --  not only about the US government but [[w:United Nations System|UN systems]], other international organizations around the world. You were put into scenarios of world events, and you had to figure out how you would solve those problems if you had to make those decisions. 

Fletcher trains the next decision makers of this world. I talk about the United States military being in every country in the world. I believe that we could also say that about Fletcher graduates, that we are all over the world trying to do the best we can to make this a better place.}}

=== Deterrence theory === 

Graves said, &quot;I've interviewed [[w:Richard Ned Lebow|Richard Ned Le Beau]], who's a leading expert on [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence theory]]. He knows that the foundations of deterrence theory assume that your leaders and the leaders of your opposition are rational. But that's contradicted by the available evidence of all kinds of political and military leaders that prove that they're often not terribly rational.&lt;ref&gt;Lebow (2024); Lebow et al. (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon agreed, &quot;That is true. The term [[w:Mutually assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]] comes to mind, where we assume that the United States and China and the [[w:Soviet Union|USSR]] are going to be rational and not enter into conflicts that impact the planet. But I would say, are they being rational in the tiny impacts that happen? You are hard pressed to find any government that tries to act in the best interest of this planet, of the people, when you're bombing countries and leaving millions homeless. When you are leaving children starving and rationalizing it under the guise of security, you are not being a rational human being.&quot; 

Graves said, &quot;You can only play chicken so many times before everybody loses.&quot; 

Canyon agreed, &quot;Exactly.&quot; 

=== Department of War ===

Graves noted that the Peace Economy Project website has a recent blog discussing the US &quot;Department of War&quot; by their founder, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;McGivern (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, {{quote|

Yes, Mary Ann McGivern. I asked her to write that article because before it was dubbed the &quot;Department of War&quot;, Mary Ann didn't like that we were calling it the &quot;[[w:United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]&quot;. She said it was completely inaccurate, that they were not concerned with defense. They were not concerned with protecting the United States. They were about creating war. So when it happened,&lt;ref&gt;President Trump signed [[w:Executive Order 14347|Executive Order 14347]] titled, &quot;Restoring the United States Department of War&quot; on 2025-09-05. However, the official name is still the &quot;Department of Defense&quot;, because it was created by the &lt;!--National Security Act Amendments of 1949--&gt;{{cite Q|Q122052416}} and cannot be changed by an executive order. Its predecessor was the &quot;[[w:United States Department of War|Deparment of War]]&quot;, established by Congress in 1789, the first year of the US under its current constitution.&lt;/ref&gt; I said, &quot;Mary Ann, you're the one who needs to talk about this, because a lot of people in the country were upset that they changed the name because they felt that with the name change there would be a focus change.&quot; Mary Ann was saying, &quot;That happened long ago. Now they're being truthful.&quot; 

That was something that Mary Ann was definitely qualified to write about, because she was our founder. She is very passionate about peace. She's a nun. I do have an appreciation for nuns and their ability to stand out against the common narrative, and stand up and say, &quot;No! This is what the truth is,&quot; and not be afraid of that. 

I wouldn't call myself a person of faith, but I admire people who are and use that faith in order to help others to see the greater truth of preserving this planet.}}

Graves countered, &quot;I would say that our Secretary of War, Hegseth, would consider himself a person of faith. He has monthly prayer meetings in the Pentagon during normal working hours.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth#Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war|Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth|Pete Hegseth]]&quot;, accessed 2026-06-22.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Military Religious Freedom Foundation|Military Religious Freedom Foundation]] has reported they'd received over 200 complaints from over 50 different US military installations that said that they were told to spread the good word that Jesus has anointed President Trump to light the signal fires in Iran leading to Armageddon.&lt;ref&gt;Mordowanec (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;That is frightening to say the least. I don't think that there isn't a place for faith in people's life, but there definitely needs to be a [[w:Separation of church and state|separation of church and state]].

=== Close with a poem ===

When Graves noted that we were out of time and asked for final words, Canyon wanted to read a poem she had written a few years ago during the early stages of the war against Palestinians. It's called 

::'''Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]]'''&lt;ref&gt;Canyon agreed to release this poem under the [[w:Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 4.0 International License]].&lt;/ref&gt;

It was based on a photo that she saw in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]: 

:Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]].
:Privacy requires no space at all. 
:Fluorescent lights glow white along the ceiling, 
:except for the one that is out. 
:Bombs erupt, sirens wail, or children cry. 
:[[wiktionary:Decubitus|Decubitus]] people fill the gurneys that line the hallway. 
:A long white river of linoleum runs between the rows. 
:Rippling walls of blue plastic curtains embarrass the sky. 
:One gray man stands in the middle of it all, 
:like I imagine my granddaddy stood next to my mama during the [[w:Polio#Epidemiology|polio epidemic]]. 
:That was another century. 
:This is a whole new tragedy for people. 
:I want to ask the [[w:monarch butterfly|monarch butterfly]], the puppet, the sun 
:to stop to put down their bread and circuses, 
:But the man wearing a baseball cap 
:picks up his cellphone and turns his back to the camera. 
:I see a woman in a black hijab toward the back, 
:but I cannot make out her face. 
:The man in black lying in the front gurney 
:is missing at least two fingers.
 
== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006) A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2021-10-28) Surviving Home--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291339}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-03-23) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310269}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-05-12) &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310176}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (in preparation) Los Angeles Nomad--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291360|date=in preparation}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon and Aja Canyon (2017-09-16) Changing the Lines--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291385}}
* &lt;!--John Howard Griffin (1961) Black Like Me--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126453723|author=John Howard Griffin}}
* &lt;!--Suzanne Keen (2007-05-03) Empathy and the Novel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140236008}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow (2024-03-26) Deterrence, its failures, and relations between the US and China--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140315485}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow, Douglas A. Samuelson, and Spencer Graves (2023-11-29) Richard Ned Lebow on national defense including deterrence--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124351846}}
* &lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern (2026-05-27) The War Department: What’s in a Name?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140314425}}
* &lt;!--Nick Mordowanec (2026-03-03) &quot;Commanders Accused of Framing Iran War as Biblical Mandate, Jesus' 'Return'&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138840951}}
* &lt;!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Theodore Postol (1991-92) &quot;Lessons of the Gulf War experience with Patriot&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310330|date=1991-92}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2019) Warheads to Windmills: How to pay for a Green New Deal--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104969895}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2023-12-15) Warheads to Windmills: Preventing Climate Catastrophe and Nuclear War--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310033}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
&lt;!--list of categories
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review
[[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="26116" sha1="9rx80ze0ozocl803vrac0agmpei6bt5" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290658}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the Peace Economy Project,&lt;ref name=PEP&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290765}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.webm|thumb|2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 

Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon/&gt; describes the Peace Economy Project (PEP),&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; their vision and activities. Canyon is PEP's Executive Director. She holds a BA from [[w:Saint Louis University|Saint Louis University]] and a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD) from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School]].&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon: Poet, Spoken Word Artist--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291133}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her publications include two recent books of poetry&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2021); Canyon and Canyon (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; a novel,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (in preparation).&lt;/ref&gt; and numerous shorter pieces of political commentary disseminated in a variety of outlets. 

PEP works to &quot;Cut Military Spending. Fund Human Needs. They are &quot;guided by the belief that true security is built through care, dignity, and a shared well-being—not punishment, militarization, or fear.&quot; Their work is grounded in 8 core values: 
# Human Dignity.
# Nonviolence.
# Peaceful and Civic Engagement.
# Community Safety Over Militarization.
# Accountability and Transparency.
# Care-Centered Policy.
# Solidarity Across Difference.
# Thoughtful, Strategic Action.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project Core Values--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291167}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Highlights ==

:''These excerpts are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.''

When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, Canyon said, {{quote|

I would like to communicate to our audience the importance of media literacy. Especially I'd like to talk to poets and other creative influencers in ways of participating in making sure that events in this world are properly and truthfully documented. ... 

I'm much influenced by the poet [[w:Muriel Rukeyser|Muriel Rukeyser]], who was a documentary poet in the early to mid 20th century. She would use her poetics to talk about events that she witnessed, particularly when it had to do with minors and the health effects that they were facing when going into the mines. Many of them were dying. So Muriel Rockeyser wrote beautiful poems about the experience in order to open up dialog and to reveal what was going on with these people, who would not have been represented otherwise. 

They were being overshadowed by corporate structures that also controlled the media, and at times poetry is the way to get through to people. When you look at what happens during wars, it's often poets who stand out and express themselves either through poetry or through independent media.}}

Graves asked if the best known poets might partner with musicians? 

Canyon agreed. &quot;That is true. A lot of poems are musical. And ... a lot of songs are musical. From soft alternative music to heavy metal to rap music, it's all poetics. And they all bear a certain level of truth. You can also say that song makers are the most known truth tellers that we have right now.&quot; 

Graves mentioned [[w:Bob Dylan|Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[w:The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll|Hattie Carroll was a maid in the kitchen]]&quot;.

=== Peace Economy Project ===

Graves then asked for an overview of the &quot;Peace Economy Project&quot;,&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; Canyon said, {{quote|

The Peace Economy Project is an organization that's been around since 1977. It started in [[w:St. Louis|St. Louis]]. One of the founders is still on our board today, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140309851}}&lt;/ref&gt; She and a group of citizens of St. Louis were having issues with what was going on with [[w:McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas]], now [[w:Boeing|Boeing]]. They were against weapons manufacturing in their city of St. Louis. So they protested that. From there, the Peace Economy Project grew. A lot of our focus is primarily on St. Louis in Missouri, but we decided that what we face locally, every state in this country faces ... . 

We decided that in order to impact our cities that we needed to not only focus locally but we needed to also focus nationally. We do this through our fellowship programs. We train fellows to do research. Like I said, truth and documentary poetics. But any way of researching and documenting the truth is very important to our mission, which is to educate the public on the effects of an unchecked military industrial complex. We take a lot of college fellows. Sometimes we will take on a high school fellow, but most are college and grad school. 

They will research different areas in order to look into the impact that the military has on different parts of our life. A lot of our fellows investigate environmental impacts that the military has on their areas. We have fellows from St. Louis, obviously, but we also have fellows that live in New York. We have some in Italy. We have fellows in France. 

They're all over the world, and they are investigating the impact that the United States has on their countries and on their communities.}} 

=== ''Warheads to Windmills'' ===

Graves mentioned [[w:Timmon Wallis|Timmon Wallis]] and his work on ''Warheads to Windmills''.&lt;ref&gt;Wallis (2018, 2023)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For example, with the [[w:Kansas City National Security Campus|nuclear bomb plant in Kansas City]], the United States and the public would benefit more if the people doing that work were instead facilitating the transformation to a post-fossil fuel economy.&quot; 

Canyon agreed. &quot;If they were investing in environmental sustainability instead of putting together warheads, ... that would be a better investment ... . I have numerous fellows that work on this. A lot of our fellows are environmental students. They understand the concept of a peace economy that if we just give people a means of meeting their basic human needs, a good portion of our problems would just go away.&quot; 

=== Biggest successes === 

Graves asked about their biggest successes so far. Canyon replied, {{quote|

I would say that our major successes have to do with educating people, especially our fellows. They are the ones that are going to be making decisions 20 years from now. We get fellows from [[w:Yale University|Yale]], from [[w:Rutgers University|Rutgers]], from major universities around the world, [[w:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]]. ...

I'm not saying that the military is completely unnecessary. I hope that it will be one day, but I'm not saying that's the case today. But we are saying that the way that they're going about it right now is extreme, we should not be investing as much money as we do in the military.}}

=== &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot; ===

Graves noted that a lead article on their website describes, &quot;Record Pentagon spending, diminished security, a $1.5 trillion warning&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-05).&lt;/ref&gt; and asked about that. Canyon replied, {{quote|

&quot;This presidency has exceeded any other presidency in military spending. Each time they go to Congress, they say it's for more security, but we are just getting more entrenched in battles. 

[[w:United States withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal|President Obama had an agreement with Iran that President Trump tore up]]. We are battling them today because of the ignorance of that agreement. Now they're negotiating, and they're probably going to end up with close to the same agreement that was dismissed by the early Trump presidency.}}

=== &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians&quot; ===

Graves mentioned another article on their website that mentioned the Patriot missiles.&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-03) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Graves noted that one of the books by Robin Andersen&lt;ref&gt;[[Media and war|Andersen was interviewed]] for this [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy|Media &amp; Democracy]] series 2026-03-27.&lt;/ref&gt; says that the introduction of the Patriot missiles, so-called anti-missile missiles, during the [[w:Gulf War|First Persian Gulf War]] actually did more damage than good, because the debris from the Scud missiles was scattered over a wider area with debris from the Patriots actually destroying more property and killing more people.&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006, pp. 178-179) quotes MIT prof [[w:Theodore Postol|Postol]] (1991-92).&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;I actually did a report on that back in 2012, when I was a fellow for the Peace Economy Project. It's true that we invest in these weapon systems, and a lot of the time we put all of this money into these weapons, and not only are they ineffective, most of the time, they impact our environment in significant ways.&quot; 

Graves affirmed, &quot;Yeah, worse than worse than useless: They're counterproductive.&quot; 

=== Media sell changes in audience behaviors ===

Graves then asked, &quot;To what extent is it fair to say that every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;It's likely more accurate to say that, &quot;Every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media.&quot; This is discussed further in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;A part of me wants to believe in the media. As a communications major and a poet who just finished her MFA in creative writing, I want to believe that the media wants to give the public the truth. But at the end of the day, media empires are businesses. They are going to go where the money is. They're going to want to do what they need to survive. I believe that there are very few organizations that aren't pandering to those who give them money. The only way to avoid that is to have a media that does not depend on major corporate support or on special interests.&quot; 

Graves continued, &quot;I've interviewed [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|Victor Picard]], who recommends local news nonprofits, maybe multi local multimedia centers funded locally with firewalls that prevent political interference. Boards of directors may be selected at random, like jury duty, and with regular, maybe monthly, meetings, where they invite public input to help journalists select better topics, and maybe recruit volunteer researchers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pickard (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;I think there does need to be a better investment in peer review and a better investment into local economies, such that the media isn't controlled solely by one ruling class or one ruling entity. I'm truly in favor of local investment. I think that is one significant way to support true documentary media. On top of that, I think that peer review is another way to make sure that happens.&quot; 

=== Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.===

Graves continued, &quot;My research in this area suggests that primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.&lt;ref&gt;This is a &quot;[[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claim]]&quot; of the book-in-progress on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which provides substantial documentation to support this claim.&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon replied, {{quote|

I think that is also true. You want to believe things that are closer to your own experience, so it is very challenging for people who don't have that experience to believe that another experience is true. 

It happens a lot with my poetry when I travel and I read about the experiences that happened to me in my childhood. Quite often, people will come to me and say, &quot;Did that really happen to you?&quot; 

While, if I am in an audience where either we're mostly women or women of color, they'll come up to me and say, &quot;Thank you for writing that. It is very similar to my own experience.&quot; 

It is hard for people to believe things that are outside their sphere. That's why things like what's happening in the [[w:Middle East|Middle East]] is so hard for people to grasp. Here in the United States, we do not understand what it means to have your homes bombed. Or to be chased out of your own home. We don't understand the idea that you need to leave your country. So that is why immigration is such a hot button issue. 

That is why investing in military support is such a hot button issue, because we don't understand what it is to be in those situations.}} 

=== ''Black Like Me'' ===

Graves noted that his grandmother was deeply moved by the book ''[[w:Black Like Me|Black Like Me]]'', which came out in the early part of the civil rights movement.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1961).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon said, &quot;There's a book called ''Empathy and the Novel'', which talks about how fiction and literature move people, and how much can a novel or how much can a poem move someone? Can it move them toward action?&lt;ref&gt;Keen (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Graves continued, &quot;That book was written by apparently a white guy who took some kind of medication to turn his skin dark and traveled throughout the [[w:Southern United States|South]], and wrote about his experiences -- a white guy being treated like an African American. That book had, apparently, a pretty decent impact on a lot of folks. 

Canyon replied, &quot;I can see how that would, because he's the same person, except his skin is different. So he was able to say, &quot;I went through this situation as a white guy, and it was fine. But when I changed the color of my skin, it was a different situation.&quot;

=== MALD and MFA === 

Graves noted that Canyon has a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100606027}} (MALD).&lt;/ref&gt; from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]]. He asked her to talk about that. 

Canyon said, {{quote|

I do have a Master of Art in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School, and I also have a [[w:Master of Fine Arts|Master of Fine Arts]], which I just earned about a week ago from [[w:Mississippi University for Women|Mississippi University for Women]] in creative writing. 

It was challenging for me when I decided to pursue international studies with Fletcher, because I have this need to be a journalist. Truth is very important to me. Ever since I was a child, and I used to watch ''[[w:Lou Grant (TV series)|Lou Grant]]'', I wanted to be a journalist that investigated stories and reported the truth to people and help people understand what's going on in the world. But I'm also a poet, so I had those competing drivers. There is one school that would have done that for me, where I could have studied both journalism and poetry: It was [[w:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]. But I didn't go to Dartmouth. I decided to go to Fletcher, and that was a tremendous experience for me. It was hard. It was very challenging. 

You learned a lot about how the mechanisms work --  not only about the US government but [[w:United Nations System|UN systems]], other international organizations around the world. You were put into scenarios of world events, and you had to figure out how you would solve those problems if you had to make those decisions. 

Fletcher trains the next decision makers of this world. I talk about the United States military being in every country in the world. I believe that we could also say that about Fletcher graduates, that we are all over the world trying to do the best we can to make this a better place.}}

=== Deterrence theory === 

Graves said, &quot;I've interviewed [[w:Richard Ned Lebow|Richard Ned Le Beau]], who's a leading expert on [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence theory]]. He knows that the foundations of deterrence theory assume that your leaders and the leaders of your opposition are rational. But that's contradicted by the available evidence of all kinds of political and military leaders that prove that they're often not terribly rational.&lt;ref&gt;Lebow (2024); Lebow et al. (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon agreed, &quot;That is true. The term [[w:Mutually assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]] comes to mind, where we assume that the United States and China and the [[w:Soviet Union|USSR]] are going to be rational and not enter into conflicts that impact the planet. But I would say, are they being rational in the tiny impacts that happen? You are hard pressed to find any government that tries to act in the best interest of this planet, of the people, when you're bombing countries and leaving millions homeless. When you are leaving children starving and rationalizing it under the guise of security, you are not being a rational human being.&quot; 

Graves said, &quot;You can only play chicken so many times before everybody loses.&quot; 

Canyon agreed, &quot;Exactly.&quot; 

=== Department of War ===

Graves noted that the Peace Economy Project website has a recent blog discussing the US &quot;Department of War&quot; by their founder, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;McGivern (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, {{quote|

Yes, Mary Ann McGivern. I asked her to write that article because before it was dubbed the &quot;Department of War&quot;, Mary Ann didn't like that we were calling it the &quot;[[w:United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]&quot;. She said it was completely inaccurate, that they were not concerned with defense. They were not concerned with protecting the United States. They were about creating war. So when it happened,&lt;ref&gt;President Trump signed [[w:Executive Order 14347|Executive Order 14347]] titled, &quot;Restoring the United States Department of War&quot; on 2025-09-05. However, the official name is still the &quot;Department of Defense&quot;, because it was created by the &lt;!--National Security Act Amendments of 1949--&gt;{{cite Q|Q122052416}} and cannot be changed by an executive order. Its predecessor was the &quot;[[w:United States Department of War|Deparment of War]]&quot;, established by Congress in 1789, the first year of the US under its current constitution.&lt;/ref&gt; I said, &quot;Mary Ann, you're the one who needs to talk about this, because a lot of people in the country were upset that they changed the name because they felt that with the name change there would be a focus change.&quot; Mary Ann was saying, &quot;That happened long ago. Now they're being truthful.&quot; 

That was something that Mary Ann was definitely qualified to write about, because she was our founder. She is very passionate about peace. She's a nun. I do have an appreciation for nuns and their ability to stand out against the common narrative, and stand up and say, &quot;No! This is what the truth is,&quot; and not be afraid of that. 

I wouldn't call myself a person of faith, but I admire people who are and use that faith in order to help others to see the greater truth of preserving this planet.}}

Graves countered, &quot;I would say that our Secretary of War, Hegseth, would consider himself a person of faith. He has monthly prayer meetings in the Pentagon during normal working hours.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth#Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war|Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth|Pete Hegseth]]&quot;, accessed 2026-06-22.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Military Religious Freedom Foundation|Military Religious Freedom Foundation]] has reported they'd received over 200 complaints from over 50 different US military installations that said that they were told to spread the good word that Jesus has anointed President Trump to light the signal fires in Iran leading to Armageddon.&lt;ref&gt;Mordowanec (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;That is frightening to say the least. I don't think that there isn't a place for faith in people's life, but there definitely needs to be a [[w:Separation of church and state|separation of church and state]].

=== Close with a poem ===

When Graves noted that we were out of time and asked for final words, Canyon wanted to read a poem she had written a few years ago during the early stages of the war against Palestinians. It's called 

::'''Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]]'''&lt;ref&gt;Canyon agreed to release this poem under the [[w:Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 4.0 International License]].&lt;/ref&gt;

It was based on a photo that she saw in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]: 

:Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]].
:Privacy requires no space at all. 
:Fluorescent lights glow white along the ceiling, 
:except for the one that is out. 
:Bombs erupt, sirens wail, or children cry. 
:[[wiktionary:Decubitus|Decubitus]] people fill the gurneys that line the hallway. 
:A long white river of linoleum runs between the rows. 
:Rippling walls of blue plastic curtains embarrass the sky. 
:One gray man stands in the middle of it all, 
:like I imagine my granddaddy stood next to my mama during the [[w:Polio#Epidemiology|polio epidemic]]. 
:That was another century. 
:This is a whole new tragedy for people. 
:I want to ask the [[w:monarch butterfly|monarch butterfly]], the puppet, the sun 
:to stop to put down their bread and circuses, 
:But the man wearing a baseball cap 
:picks up his cellphone and turns his back to the camera. 
:I see a woman in a black hijab toward the back, 
:but I cannot make out her face. 
:The man in black lying in the front gurney 
:is missing at least two fingers.
 
== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006) A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2021-10-28) Surviving Home--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291339}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-03-23) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310269}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-05-12) &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310176}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (in preparation) Los Angeles Nomad--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291360|date=in preparation}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon and Aja Canyon (2017-09-16) Changing the Lines--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291385}}
* &lt;!--John Howard Griffin (1961) Black Like Me--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126453723|author=John Howard Griffin}}
* &lt;!--Suzanne Keen (2007-05-03) Empathy and the Novel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140236008}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow (2024-03-26) Deterrence, its failures, and relations between the US and China--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140315485}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow, Douglas A. Samuelson, and Spencer Graves (2023-11-29) Richard Ned Lebow on national defense including deterrence--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124351846}}
* &lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern (2026-05-27) The War Department: What’s in a Name?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140314425}}
* &lt;!--Nick Mordowanec (2026-03-03) &quot;Commanders Accused of Framing Iran War as Biblical Mandate, Jesus' 'Return'&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138840951}}
* &lt;!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Theodore Postol (1991-92) &quot;Lessons of the Gulf War experience with Patriot&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310330|date=1991-92}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2019) Warheads to Windmills: How to pay for a Green New Deal--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104969895}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2023-12-15) Warheads to Windmills: Preventing Climate Catastrophe and Nuclear War--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310033}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
&lt;!--list of categories
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review
[[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="26117" sha1="7bvqedp0qrgt4m6oiuoxszlakj5byb4" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290658}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the Peace Economy Project,&lt;ref name=PEP&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290765}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.webm|thumb|2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 

Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon/&gt; describes the Peace Economy Project (PEP),&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; their vision and activities. Canyon is PEP's Executive Director. She holds a BA from [[w:Saint Louis University|Saint Louis University]] and a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD) from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School]].&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon: Poet, Spoken Word Artist--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291133}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her publications include two recent books of poetry,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2021); Canyon and Canyon (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; a novel,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (in preparation).&lt;/ref&gt; and numerous shorter pieces of political commentary disseminated in a variety of outlets. 

PEP works to &quot;Cut Military Spending. Fund Human Needs. They are &quot;guided by the belief that true security is built through care, dignity, and a shared well-being—not punishment, militarization, or fear.&quot; Their work is grounded in 8 core values: 
# Human Dignity.
# Nonviolence.
# Peaceful and Civic Engagement.
# Community Safety Over Militarization.
# Accountability and Transparency.
# Care-Centered Policy.
# Solidarity Across Difference.
# Thoughtful, Strategic Action.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project Core Values--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291167}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Highlights ==

:''These excerpts are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.''

When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, Canyon said, {{quote|

I would like to communicate to our audience the importance of media literacy. Especially I'd like to talk to poets and other creative influencers in ways of participating in making sure that events in this world are properly and truthfully documented. ... 

I'm much influenced by the poet [[w:Muriel Rukeyser|Muriel Rukeyser]], who was a documentary poet in the early to mid 20th century. She would use her poetics to talk about events that she witnessed, particularly when it had to do with minors and the health effects that they were facing when going into the mines. Many of them were dying. So Muriel Rockeyser wrote beautiful poems about the experience in order to open up dialog and to reveal what was going on with these people, who would not have been represented otherwise. 

They were being overshadowed by corporate structures that also controlled the media, and at times poetry is the way to get through to people. When you look at what happens during wars, it's often poets who stand out and express themselves either through poetry or through independent media.}}

Graves asked if the best known poets might partner with musicians? 

Canyon agreed. &quot;That is true. A lot of poems are musical. And ... a lot of songs are musical. From soft alternative music to heavy metal to rap music, it's all poetics. And they all bear a certain level of truth. You can also say that song makers are the most known truth tellers that we have right now.&quot; 

Graves mentioned [[w:Bob Dylan|Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[w:The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll|Hattie Carroll was a maid in the kitchen]]&quot;.

=== Peace Economy Project ===

Graves then asked for an overview of the &quot;Peace Economy Project&quot;,&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; Canyon said, {{quote|

The Peace Economy Project is an organization that's been around since 1977. It started in [[w:St. Louis|St. Louis]]. One of the founders is still on our board today, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140309851}}&lt;/ref&gt; She and a group of citizens of St. Louis were having issues with what was going on with [[w:McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas]], now [[w:Boeing|Boeing]]. They were against weapons manufacturing in their city of St. Louis. So they protested that. From there, the Peace Economy Project grew. A lot of our focus is primarily on St. Louis in Missouri, but we decided that what we face locally, every state in this country faces ... . 

We decided that in order to impact our cities that we needed to not only focus locally but we needed to also focus nationally. We do this through our fellowship programs. We train fellows to do research. Like I said, truth and documentary poetics. But any way of researching and documenting the truth is very important to our mission, which is to educate the public on the effects of an unchecked military industrial complex. We take a lot of college fellows. Sometimes we will take on a high school fellow, but most are college and grad school. 

They will research different areas in order to look into the impact that the military has on different parts of our life. A lot of our fellows investigate environmental impacts that the military has on their areas. We have fellows from St. Louis, obviously, but we also have fellows that live in New York. We have some in Italy. We have fellows in France. 

They're all over the world, and they are investigating the impact that the United States has on their countries and on their communities.}} 

=== ''Warheads to Windmills'' ===

Graves mentioned [[w:Timmon Wallis|Timmon Wallis]] and his work on ''Warheads to Windmills''.&lt;ref&gt;Wallis (2018, 2023)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For example, with the [[w:Kansas City National Security Campus|nuclear bomb plant in Kansas City]], the United States and the public would benefit more if the people doing that work were instead facilitating the transformation to a post-fossil fuel economy.&quot; 

Canyon agreed. &quot;If they were investing in environmental sustainability instead of putting together warheads, ... that would be a better investment ... . I have numerous fellows that work on this. A lot of our fellows are environmental students. They understand the concept of a peace economy that if we just give people a means of meeting their basic human needs, a good portion of our problems would just go away.&quot; 

=== Biggest successes === 

Graves asked about their biggest successes so far. Canyon replied, {{quote|

I would say that our major successes have to do with educating people, especially our fellows. They are the ones that are going to be making decisions 20 years from now. We get fellows from [[w:Yale University|Yale]], from [[w:Rutgers University|Rutgers]], from major universities around the world, [[w:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]]. ...

I'm not saying that the military is completely unnecessary. I hope that it will be one day, but I'm not saying that's the case today. But we are saying that the way that they're going about it right now is extreme, we should not be investing as much money as we do in the military.}}

=== &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot; ===

Graves noted that a lead article on their website describes, &quot;Record Pentagon spending, diminished security, a $1.5 trillion warning&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-05).&lt;/ref&gt; and asked about that. Canyon replied, {{quote|

&quot;This presidency has exceeded any other presidency in military spending. Each time they go to Congress, they say it's for more security, but we are just getting more entrenched in battles. 

[[w:United States withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal|President Obama had an agreement with Iran that President Trump tore up]]. We are battling them today because of the ignorance of that agreement. Now they're negotiating, and they're probably going to end up with close to the same agreement that was dismissed by the early Trump presidency.}}

=== &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians&quot; ===

Graves mentioned another article on their website that mentioned the Patriot missiles.&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-03) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Graves noted that one of the books by Robin Andersen&lt;ref&gt;[[Media and war|Andersen was interviewed]] for this [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy|Media &amp; Democracy]] series 2026-03-27.&lt;/ref&gt; says that the introduction of the Patriot missiles, so-called anti-missile missiles, during the [[w:Gulf War|First Persian Gulf War]] actually did more damage than good, because the debris from the Scud missiles was scattered over a wider area with debris from the Patriots actually destroying more property and killing more people.&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006, pp. 178-179) quotes MIT prof [[w:Theodore Postol|Postol]] (1991-92).&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;I actually did a report on that back in 2012, when I was a fellow for the Peace Economy Project. It's true that we invest in these weapon systems, and a lot of the time we put all of this money into these weapons, and not only are they ineffective, most of the time, they impact our environment in significant ways.&quot; 

Graves affirmed, &quot;Yeah, worse than worse than useless: They're counterproductive.&quot; 

=== Media sell changes in audience behaviors ===

Graves then asked, &quot;To what extent is it fair to say that every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;It's likely more accurate to say that, &quot;Every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media.&quot; This is discussed further in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;A part of me wants to believe in the media. As a communications major and a poet who just finished her MFA in creative writing, I want to believe that the media wants to give the public the truth. But at the end of the day, media empires are businesses. They are going to go where the money is. They're going to want to do what they need to survive. I believe that there are very few organizations that aren't pandering to those who give them money. The only way to avoid that is to have a media that does not depend on major corporate support or on special interests.&quot; 

Graves continued, &quot;I've interviewed [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|Victor Picard]], who recommends local news nonprofits, maybe multi local multimedia centers funded locally with firewalls that prevent political interference. Boards of directors may be selected at random, like jury duty, and with regular, maybe monthly, meetings, where they invite public input to help journalists select better topics, and maybe recruit volunteer researchers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pickard (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;I think there does need to be a better investment in peer review and a better investment into local economies, such that the media isn't controlled solely by one ruling class or one ruling entity. I'm truly in favor of local investment. I think that is one significant way to support true documentary media. On top of that, I think that peer review is another way to make sure that happens.&quot; 

=== Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.===

Graves continued, &quot;My research in this area suggests that primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.&lt;ref&gt;This is a &quot;[[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claim]]&quot; of the book-in-progress on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which provides substantial documentation to support this claim.&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon replied, {{quote|

I think that is also true. You want to believe things that are closer to your own experience, so it is very challenging for people who don't have that experience to believe that another experience is true. 

It happens a lot with my poetry when I travel and I read about the experiences that happened to me in my childhood. Quite often, people will come to me and say, &quot;Did that really happen to you?&quot; 

While, if I am in an audience where either we're mostly women or women of color, they'll come up to me and say, &quot;Thank you for writing that. It is very similar to my own experience.&quot; 

It is hard for people to believe things that are outside their sphere. That's why things like what's happening in the [[w:Middle East|Middle East]] is so hard for people to grasp. Here in the United States, we do not understand what it means to have your homes bombed. Or to be chased out of your own home. We don't understand the idea that you need to leave your country. So that is why immigration is such a hot button issue. 

That is why investing in military support is such a hot button issue, because we don't understand what it is to be in those situations.}} 

=== ''Black Like Me'' ===

Graves noted that his grandmother was deeply moved by the book ''[[w:Black Like Me|Black Like Me]]'', which came out in the early part of the civil rights movement.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1961).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon said, &quot;There's a book called ''Empathy and the Novel'', which talks about how fiction and literature move people, and how much can a novel or how much can a poem move someone? Can it move them toward action?&lt;ref&gt;Keen (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Graves continued, &quot;That book was written by apparently a white guy who took some kind of medication to turn his skin dark and traveled throughout the [[w:Southern United States|South]], and wrote about his experiences -- a white guy being treated like an African American. That book had, apparently, a pretty decent impact on a lot of folks. 

Canyon replied, &quot;I can see how that would, because he's the same person, except his skin is different. So he was able to say, &quot;I went through this situation as a white guy, and it was fine. But when I changed the color of my skin, it was a different situation.&quot;

=== MALD and MFA === 

Graves noted that Canyon has a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100606027}} (MALD).&lt;/ref&gt; from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]]. He asked her to talk about that. 

Canyon said, {{quote|

I do have a Master of Art in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School, and I also have a [[w:Master of Fine Arts|Master of Fine Arts]], which I just earned about a week ago from [[w:Mississippi University for Women|Mississippi University for Women]] in creative writing. 

It was challenging for me when I decided to pursue international studies with Fletcher, because I have this need to be a journalist. Truth is very important to me. Ever since I was a child, and I used to watch ''[[w:Lou Grant (TV series)|Lou Grant]]'', I wanted to be a journalist that investigated stories and reported the truth to people and help people understand what's going on in the world. But I'm also a poet, so I had those competing drivers. There is one school that would have done that for me, where I could have studied both journalism and poetry: It was [[w:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]. But I didn't go to Dartmouth. I decided to go to Fletcher, and that was a tremendous experience for me. It was hard. It was very challenging. 

You learned a lot about how the mechanisms work --  not only about the US government but [[w:United Nations System|UN systems]], other international organizations around the world. You were put into scenarios of world events, and you had to figure out how you would solve those problems if you had to make those decisions. 

Fletcher trains the next decision makers of this world. I talk about the United States military being in every country in the world. I believe that we could also say that about Fletcher graduates, that we are all over the world trying to do the best we can to make this a better place.}}

=== Deterrence theory === 

Graves said, &quot;I've interviewed [[w:Richard Ned Lebow|Richard Ned Le Beau]], who's a leading expert on [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence theory]]. He knows that the foundations of deterrence theory assume that your leaders and the leaders of your opposition are rational. But that's contradicted by the available evidence of all kinds of political and military leaders that prove that they're often not terribly rational.&lt;ref&gt;Lebow (2024); Lebow et al. (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon agreed, &quot;That is true. The term [[w:Mutually assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]] comes to mind, where we assume that the United States and China and the [[w:Soviet Union|USSR]] are going to be rational and not enter into conflicts that impact the planet. But I would say, are they being rational in the tiny impacts that happen? You are hard pressed to find any government that tries to act in the best interest of this planet, of the people, when you're bombing countries and leaving millions homeless. When you are leaving children starving and rationalizing it under the guise of security, you are not being a rational human being.&quot; 

Graves said, &quot;You can only play chicken so many times before everybody loses.&quot; 

Canyon agreed, &quot;Exactly.&quot; 

=== Department of War ===

Graves noted that the Peace Economy Project website has a recent blog discussing the US &quot;Department of War&quot; by their founder, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;McGivern (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, {{quote|

Yes, Mary Ann McGivern. I asked her to write that article because before it was dubbed the &quot;Department of War&quot;, Mary Ann didn't like that we were calling it the &quot;[[w:United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]&quot;. She said it was completely inaccurate, that they were not concerned with defense. They were not concerned with protecting the United States. They were about creating war. So when it happened,&lt;ref&gt;President Trump signed [[w:Executive Order 14347|Executive Order 14347]] titled, &quot;Restoring the United States Department of War&quot; on 2025-09-05. However, the official name is still the &quot;Department of Defense&quot;, because it was created by the &lt;!--National Security Act Amendments of 1949--&gt;{{cite Q|Q122052416}} and cannot be changed by an executive order. Its predecessor was the &quot;[[w:United States Department of War|Deparment of War]]&quot;, established by Congress in 1789, the first year of the US under its current constitution.&lt;/ref&gt; I said, &quot;Mary Ann, you're the one who needs to talk about this, because a lot of people in the country were upset that they changed the name because they felt that with the name change there would be a focus change.&quot; Mary Ann was saying, &quot;That happened long ago. Now they're being truthful.&quot; 

That was something that Mary Ann was definitely qualified to write about, because she was our founder. She is very passionate about peace. She's a nun. I do have an appreciation for nuns and their ability to stand out against the common narrative, and stand up and say, &quot;No! This is what the truth is,&quot; and not be afraid of that. 

I wouldn't call myself a person of faith, but I admire people who are and use that faith in order to help others to see the greater truth of preserving this planet.}}

Graves countered, &quot;I would say that our Secretary of War, Hegseth, would consider himself a person of faith. He has monthly prayer meetings in the Pentagon during normal working hours.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth#Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war|Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth|Pete Hegseth]]&quot;, accessed 2026-06-22.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Military Religious Freedom Foundation|Military Religious Freedom Foundation]] has reported they'd received over 200 complaints from over 50 different US military installations that said that they were told to spread the good word that Jesus has anointed President Trump to light the signal fires in Iran leading to Armageddon.&lt;ref&gt;Mordowanec (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;That is frightening to say the least. I don't think that there isn't a place for faith in people's life, but there definitely needs to be a [[w:Separation of church and state|separation of church and state]].

=== Close with a poem ===

When Graves noted that we were out of time and asked for final words, Canyon wanted to read a poem she had written a few years ago during the early stages of the war against Palestinians. It's called 

::'''Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]]'''&lt;ref&gt;Canyon agreed to release this poem under the [[w:Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 4.0 International License]].&lt;/ref&gt;

It was based on a photo that she saw in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]: 

:Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]].
:Privacy requires no space at all. 
:Fluorescent lights glow white along the ceiling, 
:except for the one that is out. 
:Bombs erupt, sirens wail, or children cry. 
:[[wiktionary:Decubitus|Decubitus]] people fill the gurneys that line the hallway. 
:A long white river of linoleum runs between the rows. 
:Rippling walls of blue plastic curtains embarrass the sky. 
:One gray man stands in the middle of it all, 
:like I imagine my granddaddy stood next to my mama during the [[w:Polio#Epidemiology|polio epidemic]]. 
:That was another century. 
:This is a whole new tragedy for people. 
:I want to ask the [[w:monarch butterfly|monarch butterfly]], the puppet, the sun 
:to stop to put down their bread and circuses, 
:But the man wearing a baseball cap 
:picks up his cellphone and turns his back to the camera. 
:I see a woman in a black hijab toward the back, 
:but I cannot make out her face. 
:The man in black lying in the front gurney 
:is missing at least two fingers.
 
== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006) A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2021-10-28) Surviving Home--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291339}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-03-23) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310269}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-05-12) &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310176}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (in preparation) Los Angeles Nomad--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291360|date=in preparation}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon and Aja Canyon (2017-09-16) Changing the Lines--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291385}}
* &lt;!--John Howard Griffin (1961) Black Like Me--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126453723|author=John Howard Griffin}}
* &lt;!--Suzanne Keen (2007-05-03) Empathy and the Novel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140236008}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow (2024-03-26) Deterrence, its failures, and relations between the US and China--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140315485}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow, Douglas A. Samuelson, and Spencer Graves (2023-11-29) Richard Ned Lebow on national defense including deterrence--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124351846}}
* &lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern (2026-05-27) The War Department: What’s in a Name?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140314425}}
* &lt;!--Nick Mordowanec (2026-03-03) &quot;Commanders Accused of Framing Iran War as Biblical Mandate, Jesus' 'Return'&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138840951}}
* &lt;!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Theodore Postol (1991-92) &quot;Lessons of the Gulf War experience with Patriot&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310330|date=1991-92}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2019) Warheads to Windmills: How to pay for a Green New Deal--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104969895}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2023-12-15) Warheads to Windmills: Preventing Climate Catastrophe and Nuclear War--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310033}}

[[Category:Media]]
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      <text bytes="26122" sha1="4m02dm1n8p6qqjhrf5cq7kppm2uurxb" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290658}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the Peace Economy Project,&lt;ref name=PEP&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290765}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.webm|thumb|2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 
&lt;!--[[File:2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.]]--&gt; 

Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon/&gt; describes the Peace Economy Project (PEP),&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; their vision and activities. Canyon is PEP's Executive Director. She holds a BA from [[w:Saint Louis University|Saint Louis University]] and a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD) from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School]].&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon: Poet, Spoken Word Artist--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291133}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her publications include two recent books of poetry,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2021); Canyon and Canyon (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; a novel,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (in preparation).&lt;/ref&gt; and numerous shorter pieces of political commentary disseminated in a variety of outlets. 

PEP works to &quot;Cut Military Spending [and] Fund Human Needs.&quot; They are &quot;guided by the belief that true security is built through care, dignity, and a shared well-being—not punishment, militarization, or fear.&quot; Their work is grounded in 8 core values:&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project Core Values--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291167}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
# Human Dignity.
# Nonviolence.
# Peaceful and Civic Engagement.
# Community Safety Over Militarization.
# Accountability and Transparency.
# Care-Centered Policy.
# Solidarity Across Difference.
# Thoughtful, Strategic Action.

Canyon is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Highlights ==

:''These excerpts are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.''

When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, Canyon said, {{quote|

I would like to communicate to our audience the importance of media literacy. Especially I'd like to talk to poets and other creative influencers in ways of participating in making sure that events in this world are properly and truthfully documented. ... 

I'm much influenced by the poet [[w:Muriel Rukeyser|Muriel Rukeyser]], who was a documentary poet in the early to mid 20th century. She would use her poetics to talk about events that she witnessed, particularly when it had to do with minors and the health effects that they were facing when going into the mines. Many of them were dying. So Muriel Rockeyser wrote beautiful poems about the experience in order to open up dialog and to reveal what was going on with these people, who would not have been represented otherwise. 

They were being overshadowed by corporate structures that also controlled the media, and at times poetry is the way to get through to people. When you look at what happens during wars, it's often poets who stand out and express themselves either through poetry or through independent media.}}

Graves asked if the best known poets might partner with musicians? 

Canyon agreed. &quot;That is true. A lot of poems are musical. And ... a lot of songs are musical. From soft alternative music to heavy metal to rap music, it's all poetics. And they all bear a certain level of truth. You can also say that song makers are the most known truth tellers that we have right now.&quot; 

Graves mentioned [[w:Bob Dylan|Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[w:The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll|Hattie Carroll was a maid in the kitchen]]&quot;.

=== Peace Economy Project ===

Graves then asked for an overview of the &quot;Peace Economy Project&quot;,&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; Canyon said, {{quote|

The Peace Economy Project is an organization that's been around since 1977. It started in [[w:St. Louis|St. Louis]]. One of the founders is still on our board today, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140309851}}&lt;/ref&gt; She and a group of citizens of St. Louis were having issues with what was going on with [[w:McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas]], now [[w:Boeing|Boeing]]. They were against weapons manufacturing in their city of St. Louis. So they protested that. From there, the Peace Economy Project grew. A lot of our focus is primarily on St. Louis in Missouri, but we decided that what we face locally, every state in this country faces ... . 

We decided that in order to impact our cities that we needed to not only focus locally but we needed to also focus nationally. We do this through our fellowship programs. We train fellows to do research. Like I said, truth and documentary poetics. But any way of researching and documenting the truth is very important to our mission, which is to educate the public on the effects of an unchecked military industrial complex. We take a lot of college fellows. Sometimes we will take on a high school fellow, but most are college and grad school. 

They will research different areas in order to look into the impact that the military has on different parts of our life. A lot of our fellows investigate environmental impacts that the military has on their areas. We have fellows from St. Louis, obviously, but we also have fellows that live in New York. We have some in Italy. We have fellows in France. 

They're all over the world, and they are investigating the impact that the United States has on their countries and on their communities.}} 

=== ''Warheads to Windmills'' ===

Graves mentioned [[w:Timmon Wallis|Timmon Wallis]] and his work on ''Warheads to Windmills''.&lt;ref&gt;Wallis (2018, 2023)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For example, with the [[w:Kansas City National Security Campus|nuclear bomb plant in Kansas City]], the United States and the public would benefit more if the people doing that work were instead facilitating the transformation to a post-fossil fuel economy.&quot; 

Canyon agreed. &quot;If they were investing in environmental sustainability instead of putting together warheads, ... that would be a better investment ... . I have numerous fellows that work on this. A lot of our fellows are environmental students. They understand the concept of a peace economy that if we just give people a means of meeting their basic human needs, a good portion of our problems would just go away.&quot; 

=== Biggest successes === 

Graves asked about their biggest successes so far. Canyon replied, {{quote|

I would say that our major successes have to do with educating people, especially our fellows. They are the ones that are going to be making decisions 20 years from now. We get fellows from [[w:Yale University|Yale]], from [[w:Rutgers University|Rutgers]], from major universities around the world, [[w:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]]. ...

I'm not saying that the military is completely unnecessary. I hope that it will be one day, but I'm not saying that's the case today. But we are saying that the way that they're going about it right now is extreme, we should not be investing as much money as we do in the military.}}

=== &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot; ===

Graves noted that a lead article on their website describes, &quot;Record Pentagon spending, diminished security, a $1.5 trillion warning&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-05).&lt;/ref&gt; and asked about that. Canyon replied, {{quote|

&quot;This presidency has exceeded any other presidency in military spending. Each time they go to Congress, they say it's for more security, but we are just getting more entrenched in battles. 

[[w:United States withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal|President Obama had an agreement with Iran that President Trump tore up]]. We are battling them today because of the ignorance of that agreement. Now they're negotiating, and they're probably going to end up with close to the same agreement that was dismissed by the early Trump presidency.}}

=== &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians&quot; ===

Graves mentioned another article on their website that mentioned the Patriot missiles.&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-03) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Graves noted that one of the books by Robin Andersen&lt;ref&gt;[[Media and war|Andersen was interviewed]] for this [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy|Media &amp; Democracy]] series 2026-03-27.&lt;/ref&gt; says that the introduction of the Patriot missiles, so-called anti-missile missiles, during the [[w:Gulf War|First Persian Gulf War]] actually did more damage than good, because the debris from the Scud missiles was scattered over a wider area with debris from the Patriots actually destroying more property and killing more people.&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006, pp. 178-179) quotes MIT prof [[w:Theodore Postol|Postol]] (1991-92).&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;I actually did a report on that back in 2012, when I was a fellow for the Peace Economy Project. It's true that we invest in these weapon systems, and a lot of the time we put all of this money into these weapons, and not only are they ineffective, most of the time, they impact our environment in significant ways.&quot; 

Graves affirmed, &quot;Yeah, worse than worse than useless: They're counterproductive.&quot; 

=== Media sell changes in audience behaviors ===

Graves then asked, &quot;To what extent is it fair to say that every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;It's likely more accurate to say that, &quot;Every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media.&quot; This is discussed further in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;A part of me wants to believe in the media. As a communications major and a poet who just finished her MFA in creative writing, I want to believe that the media wants to give the public the truth. But at the end of the day, media empires are businesses. They are going to go where the money is. They're going to want to do what they need to survive. I believe that there are very few organizations that aren't pandering to those who give them money. The only way to avoid that is to have a media that does not depend on major corporate support or on special interests.&quot; 

Graves continued, &quot;I've interviewed [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|Victor Picard]], who recommends local news nonprofits, maybe multi local multimedia centers funded locally with firewalls that prevent political interference. Boards of directors may be selected at random, like jury duty, and with regular, maybe monthly, meetings, where they invite public input to help journalists select better topics, and maybe recruit volunteer researchers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pickard (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;I think there does need to be a better investment in peer review and a better investment into local economies, such that the media isn't controlled solely by one ruling class or one ruling entity. I'm truly in favor of local investment. I think that is one significant way to support true documentary media. On top of that, I think that peer review is another way to make sure that happens.&quot; 

=== Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.===

Graves continued, &quot;My research in this area suggests that primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.&lt;ref&gt;This is a &quot;[[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claim]]&quot; of the book-in-progress on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which provides substantial documentation to support this claim.&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon replied, {{quote|

I think that is also true. You want to believe things that are closer to your own experience, so it is very challenging for people who don't have that experience to believe that another experience is true. 

It happens a lot with my poetry when I travel and I read about the experiences that happened to me in my childhood. Quite often, people will come to me and say, &quot;Did that really happen to you?&quot; 

While, if I am in an audience where either we're mostly women or women of color, they'll come up to me and say, &quot;Thank you for writing that. It is very similar to my own experience.&quot; 

It is hard for people to believe things that are outside their sphere. That's why things like what's happening in the [[w:Middle East|Middle East]] is so hard for people to grasp. Here in the United States, we do not understand what it means to have your homes bombed. Or to be chased out of your own home. We don't understand the idea that you need to leave your country. So that is why immigration is such a hot button issue. 

That is why investing in military support is such a hot button issue, because we don't understand what it is to be in those situations.}} 

=== ''Black Like Me'' ===

Graves noted that his grandmother was deeply moved by the book ''[[w:Black Like Me|Black Like Me]]'', which came out in the early part of the civil rights movement.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1961).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon said, &quot;There's a book called ''Empathy and the Novel'', which talks about how fiction and literature move people, and how much can a novel or how much can a poem move someone? Can it move them toward action?&lt;ref&gt;Keen (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Graves continued, &quot;That book was written by apparently a white guy who took some kind of medication to turn his skin dark and traveled throughout the [[w:Southern United States|South]], and wrote about his experiences -- a white guy being treated like an African American. That book had, apparently, a pretty decent impact on a lot of folks. 

Canyon replied, &quot;I can see how that would, because he's the same person, except his skin is different. So he was able to say, &quot;I went through this situation as a white guy, and it was fine. But when I changed the color of my skin, it was a different situation.&quot;

=== MALD and MFA === 

Graves noted that Canyon has a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100606027}} (MALD).&lt;/ref&gt; from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]]. He asked her to talk about that. 

Canyon said, {{quote|

I do have a Master of Art in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School, and I also have a [[w:Master of Fine Arts|Master of Fine Arts]], which I just earned about a week ago from [[w:Mississippi University for Women|Mississippi University for Women]] in creative writing. 

It was challenging for me when I decided to pursue international studies with Fletcher, because I have this need to be a journalist. Truth is very important to me. Ever since I was a child, and I used to watch ''[[w:Lou Grant (TV series)|Lou Grant]]'', I wanted to be a journalist that investigated stories and reported the truth to people and help people understand what's going on in the world. But I'm also a poet, so I had those competing drivers. There is one school that would have done that for me, where I could have studied both journalism and poetry: It was [[w:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]. But I didn't go to Dartmouth. I decided to go to Fletcher, and that was a tremendous experience for me. It was hard. It was very challenging. 

You learned a lot about how the mechanisms work --  not only about the US government but [[w:United Nations System|UN systems]], other international organizations around the world. You were put into scenarios of world events, and you had to figure out how you would solve those problems if you had to make those decisions. 

Fletcher trains the next decision makers of this world. I talk about the United States military being in every country in the world. I believe that we could also say that about Fletcher graduates, that we are all over the world trying to do the best we can to make this a better place.}}

=== Deterrence theory === 

Graves said, &quot;I've interviewed [[w:Richard Ned Lebow|Richard Ned Le Beau]], who's a leading expert on [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence theory]]. He knows that the foundations of deterrence theory assume that your leaders and the leaders of your opposition are rational. But that's contradicted by the available evidence of all kinds of political and military leaders that prove that they're often not terribly rational.&lt;ref&gt;Lebow (2024); Lebow et al. (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon agreed, &quot;That is true. The term [[w:Mutually assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]] comes to mind, where we assume that the United States and China and the [[w:Soviet Union|USSR]] are going to be rational and not enter into conflicts that impact the planet. But I would say, are they being rational in the tiny impacts that happen? You are hard pressed to find any government that tries to act in the best interest of this planet, of the people, when you're bombing countries and leaving millions homeless. When you are leaving children starving and rationalizing it under the guise of security, you are not being a rational human being.&quot; 

Graves said, &quot;You can only play chicken so many times before everybody loses.&quot; 

Canyon agreed, &quot;Exactly.&quot; 

=== Department of War ===

Graves noted that the Peace Economy Project website has a recent blog discussing the US &quot;Department of War&quot; by their founder, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;McGivern (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, {{quote|

Yes, Mary Ann McGivern. I asked her to write that article because before it was dubbed the &quot;Department of War&quot;, Mary Ann didn't like that we were calling it the &quot;[[w:United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]&quot;. She said it was completely inaccurate, that they were not concerned with defense. They were not concerned with protecting the United States. They were about creating war. So when it happened,&lt;ref&gt;President Trump signed [[w:Executive Order 14347|Executive Order 14347]] titled, &quot;Restoring the United States Department of War&quot; on 2025-09-05. However, the official name is still the &quot;Department of Defense&quot;, because it was created by the &lt;!--National Security Act Amendments of 1949--&gt;{{cite Q|Q122052416}} and cannot be changed by an executive order. Its predecessor was the &quot;[[w:United States Department of War|Deparment of War]]&quot;, established by Congress in 1789, the first year of the US under its current constitution.&lt;/ref&gt; I said, &quot;Mary Ann, you're the one who needs to talk about this, because a lot of people in the country were upset that they changed the name because they felt that with the name change there would be a focus change.&quot; Mary Ann was saying, &quot;That happened long ago. Now they're being truthful.&quot; 

That was something that Mary Ann was definitely qualified to write about, because she was our founder. She is very passionate about peace. She's a nun. I do have an appreciation for nuns and their ability to stand out against the common narrative, and stand up and say, &quot;No! This is what the truth is,&quot; and not be afraid of that. 

I wouldn't call myself a person of faith, but I admire people who are and use that faith in order to help others to see the greater truth of preserving this planet.}}

Graves countered, &quot;I would say that our Secretary of War, Hegseth, would consider himself a person of faith. He has monthly prayer meetings in the Pentagon during normal working hours.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth#Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war|Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth|Pete Hegseth]]&quot;, accessed 2026-06-22.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Military Religious Freedom Foundation|Military Religious Freedom Foundation]] has reported they'd received over 200 complaints from over 50 different US military installations that said that they were told to spread the good word that Jesus has anointed President Trump to light the signal fires in Iran leading to Armageddon.&lt;ref&gt;Mordowanec (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;That is frightening to say the least. I don't think that there isn't a place for faith in people's life, but there definitely needs to be a [[w:Separation of church and state|separation of church and state]].

=== Close with a poem ===

When Graves noted that we were out of time and asked for final words, Canyon wanted to read a poem she had written a few years ago during the early stages of the war against Palestinians. It's called 

::'''Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]]'''&lt;ref&gt;Canyon agreed to release this poem under the [[w:Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 4.0 International License]].&lt;/ref&gt;

It was based on a photo that she saw in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]: 

:Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]].
:Privacy requires no space at all. 
:Fluorescent lights glow white along the ceiling, 
:except for the one that is out. 
:Bombs erupt, sirens wail, or children cry. 
:[[wiktionary:Decubitus|Decubitus]] people fill the gurneys that line the hallway. 
:A long white river of linoleum runs between the rows. 
:Rippling walls of blue plastic curtains embarrass the sky. 
:One gray man stands in the middle of it all, 
:like I imagine my granddaddy stood next to my mama during the [[w:Polio#Epidemiology|polio epidemic]]. 
:That was another century. 
:This is a whole new tragedy for people. 
:I want to ask the [[w:monarch butterfly|monarch butterfly]], the puppet, the sun 
:to stop to put down their bread and circuses, 
:But the man wearing a baseball cap 
:picks up his cellphone and turns his back to the camera. 
:I see a woman in a black hijab toward the back, 
:but I cannot make out her face. 
:The man in black lying in the front gurney 
:is missing at least two fingers.
 
== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006) A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2021-10-28) Surviving Home--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291339}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-03-23) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310269}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-05-12) &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310176}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (in preparation) Los Angeles Nomad--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291360|date=in preparation}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon and Aja Canyon (2017-09-16) Changing the Lines--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291385}}
* &lt;!--John Howard Griffin (1961) Black Like Me--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126453723|author=John Howard Griffin}}
* &lt;!--Suzanne Keen (2007-05-03) Empathy and the Novel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140236008}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow (2024-03-26) Deterrence, its failures, and relations between the US and China--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140315485}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow, Douglas A. Samuelson, and Spencer Graves (2023-11-29) Richard Ned Lebow on national defense including deterrence--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124351846}}
* &lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern (2026-05-27) The War Department: What’s in a Name?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140314425}}
* &lt;!--Nick Mordowanec (2026-03-03) &quot;Commanders Accused of Framing Iran War as Biblical Mandate, Jesus' 'Return'&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138840951}}
* &lt;!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Theodore Postol (1991-92) &quot;Lessons of the Gulf War experience with Patriot&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310330|date=1991-92}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2019) Warheads to Windmills: How to pay for a Green New Deal--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104969895}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2023-12-15) Warheads to Windmills: Preventing Climate Catastrophe and Nuclear War--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310033}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
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      <text bytes="26083" sha1="nr7jdesg087hr5h1s64tnq2nynhu218" xml:space="preserve">:''This discusses a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290658}}&lt;/ref&gt; about the Peace Economy Project,&lt;ref name=PEP&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140290765}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a video and 29:00 mm:ss podcast excerpted from the interview. The podcast is released 2026-06-27 to the fortnightly &quot;Media &amp; Democracy&quot; show&lt;ref name=M&amp;D&gt;&lt;!--Media &amp; Democracy--&gt;{{cite Q|Q127839818}}&lt;/ref&gt; syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]]&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Pacifica Radio Network--&gt;{{cite Q|Q2045587}}&lt;/ref&gt; Network of [[w:List of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates|over 200 community radio stations]].''&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--list of Pacifica Radio stations and affiliates--&gt;{{cite Q|Q6593294}}&lt;/ref&gt;

:''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV&gt;The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.&lt;/ref&gt; and treating others with respect.''&lt;ref name=AGF&gt;[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|&quot;Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything.&quot;]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.webm|thumb|2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project]]
[[File:Interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from a 2026-06-20 interview with Katerina Canyon about the Peace Economy Project]]

Katerina Canyon&lt;ref name=Canyon/&gt; describes the Peace Economy Project (PEP),&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; their vision and activities. Canyon is PEP's Executive Director. She holds a BA from [[w:Saint Louis University|Saint Louis University]] and a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD) from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School]].&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Katerina Canyon: Poet, Spoken Word Artist--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291133}}&lt;/ref&gt; Her publications include two recent books of poetry,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2021); Canyon and Canyon (2017).&lt;/ref&gt; a novel,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (in preparation).&lt;/ref&gt; and numerous shorter pieces of political commentary disseminated in a variety of outlets. 

PEP works to &quot;Cut Military Spending [and] Fund Human Needs.&quot; They are &quot;guided by the belief that true security is built through care, dignity, and a shared well-being—not punishment, militarization, or fear.&quot; Their work is grounded in 8 core values:&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Peace Economy Project Core Values--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291167}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
# Human Dignity.
# Nonviolence.
# Peaceful and Civic Engagement.
# Community Safety Over Militarization.
# Accountability and Transparency.
# Care-Centered Policy.
# Solidarity Across Difference.
# Thoughtful, Strategic Action.

Canyon is interviewed by Spencer Graves.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Spencer Graves--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56452480}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Highlights ==

:''These excerpts are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.''

When asked for the most important things she would like to communicate to this audience, Canyon said, {{quote|

I would like to communicate to our audience the importance of media literacy. Especially I'd like to talk to poets and other creative influencers in ways of participating in making sure that events in this world are properly and truthfully documented. ... 

I'm much influenced by the poet [[w:Muriel Rukeyser|Muriel Rukeyser]], who was a documentary poet in the early to mid 20th century. She would use her poetics to talk about events that she witnessed, particularly when it had to do with minors and the health effects that they were facing when going into the mines. Many of them were dying. So Muriel Rockeyser wrote beautiful poems about the experience in order to open up dialog and to reveal what was going on with these people, who would not have been represented otherwise. 

They were being overshadowed by corporate structures that also controlled the media, and at times poetry is the way to get through to people. When you look at what happens during wars, it's often poets who stand out and express themselves either through poetry or through independent media.}}

Graves asked if the best known poets might partner with musicians? 

Canyon agreed. &quot;That is true. A lot of poems are musical. And ... a lot of songs are musical. From soft alternative music to heavy metal to rap music, it's all poetics. And they all bear a certain level of truth. You can also say that song makers are the most known truth tellers that we have right now.&quot; 

Graves mentioned [[w:Bob Dylan|Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[w:The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll|Hattie Carroll was a maid in the kitchen]]&quot;.

=== Peace Economy Project ===

Graves then asked for an overview of the &quot;Peace Economy Project&quot;,&lt;ref name=PEP/&gt; Canyon said, {{quote|

The Peace Economy Project is an organization that's been around since 1977. It started in [[w:St. Louis|St. Louis]]. One of the founders is still on our board today, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140309851}}&lt;/ref&gt; She and a group of citizens of St. Louis were having issues with what was going on with [[w:McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas]], now [[w:Boeing|Boeing]]. They were against weapons manufacturing in their city of St. Louis. So they protested that. From there, the Peace Economy Project grew. A lot of our focus is primarily on St. Louis in Missouri, but we decided that what we face locally, every state in this country faces ... . 

We decided that in order to impact our cities that we needed to not only focus locally but we needed to also focus nationally. We do this through our fellowship programs. We train fellows to do research. Like I said, truth and documentary poetics. But any way of researching and documenting the truth is very important to our mission, which is to educate the public on the effects of an unchecked military industrial complex. We take a lot of college fellows. Sometimes we will take on a high school fellow, but most are college and grad school. 

They will research different areas in order to look into the impact that the military has on different parts of our life. A lot of our fellows investigate environmental impacts that the military has on their areas. We have fellows from St. Louis, obviously, but we also have fellows that live in New York. We have some in Italy. We have fellows in France. 

They're all over the world, and they are investigating the impact that the United States has on their countries and on their communities.}} 

=== ''Warheads to Windmills'' ===

Graves mentioned [[w:Timmon Wallis|Timmon Wallis]] and his work on ''Warheads to Windmills''.&lt;ref&gt;Wallis (2018, 2023)&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;For example, with the [[w:Kansas City National Security Campus|nuclear bomb plant in Kansas City]], the United States and the public would benefit more if the people doing that work were instead facilitating the transformation to a post-fossil fuel economy.&quot; 

Canyon agreed. &quot;If they were investing in environmental sustainability instead of putting together warheads, ... that would be a better investment ... . I have numerous fellows that work on this. A lot of our fellows are environmental students. They understand the concept of a peace economy that if we just give people a means of meeting their basic human needs, a good portion of our problems would just go away.&quot; 

=== Biggest successes === 

Graves asked about their biggest successes so far. Canyon replied, {{quote|

I would say that our major successes have to do with educating people, especially our fellows. They are the ones that are going to be making decisions 20 years from now. We get fellows from [[w:Yale University|Yale]], from [[w:Rutgers University|Rutgers]], from major universities around the world, [[w:London School of Economics|London School of Economics]]. ...

I'm not saying that the military is completely unnecessary. I hope that it will be one day, but I'm not saying that's the case today. But we are saying that the way that they're going about it right now is extreme, we should not be investing as much money as we do in the military.}}

=== &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot; ===

Graves noted that a lead article on their website describes, &quot;Record Pentagon spending, diminished security, a $1.5 trillion warning&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-05).&lt;/ref&gt; and asked about that. Canyon replied, {{quote|

&quot;This presidency has exceeded any other presidency in military spending. Each time they go to Congress, they say it's for more security, but we are just getting more entrenched in battles. 

[[w:United States withdrawal from the Iran nuclear deal|President Obama had an agreement with Iran that President Trump tore up]]. We are battling them today because of the ignorance of that agreement. Now they're negotiating, and they're probably going to end up with close to the same agreement that was dismissed by the early Trump presidency.}}

=== &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians&quot; ===

Graves mentioned another article on their website that mentioned the Patriot missiles.&lt;ref&gt;Canyon (2026-03) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt; Graves noted that one of the books by Robin Andersen&lt;ref&gt;[[Media and war|Andersen was interviewed]] for this [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy|Media &amp; Democracy]] series 2026-03-27.&lt;/ref&gt; says that the introduction of the Patriot missiles, so-called anti-missile missiles, during the [[w:Gulf War|First Persian Gulf War]] actually did more damage than good, because the debris from the Scud missiles was scattered over a wider area with debris from the Patriots actually destroying more property and killing more people.&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006, pp. 178-179) quotes MIT prof [[w:Theodore Postol|Postol]] (1991-92).&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;I actually did a report on that back in 2012, when I was a fellow for the Peace Economy Project. It's true that we invest in these weapon systems, and a lot of the time we put all of this money into these weapons, and not only are they ineffective, most of the time, they impact our environment in significant ways.&quot; 

Graves affirmed, &quot;Yeah, worse than worse than useless: They're counterproductive.&quot; 

=== Media sell changes in audience behaviors ===

Graves then asked, &quot;To what extent is it fair to say that every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who give them money?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;It's likely more accurate to say that, &quot;Every media organization sells changes in audience behavior to the people who control most of the money for the media.&quot; This is discussed further in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Canyon replied, &quot;A part of me wants to believe in the media. As a communications major and a poet who just finished her MFA in creative writing, I want to believe that the media wants to give the public the truth. But at the end of the day, media empires are businesses. They are going to go where the money is. They're going to want to do what they need to survive. I believe that there are very few organizations that aren't pandering to those who give them money. The only way to avoid that is to have a media that does not depend on major corporate support or on special interests.&quot; 

Graves continued, &quot;I've interviewed [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|Victor Picard]], who recommends local news nonprofits, maybe multi local multimedia centers funded locally with firewalls that prevent political interference. Boards of directors may be selected at random, like jury duty, and with regular, maybe monthly, meetings, where they invite public input to help journalists select better topics, and maybe recruit volunteer researchers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Pickard (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;I think there does need to be a better investment in peer review and a better investment into local economies, such that the media isn't controlled solely by one ruling class or one ruling entity. I'm truly in favor of local investment. I think that is one significant way to support true documentary media. On top of that, I think that peer review is another way to make sure that happens.&quot; 

=== Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.===

Graves continued, &quot;My research in this area suggests that primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media that the different parties find credible.&lt;ref&gt;This is a &quot;[[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claim]]&quot; of the book-in-progress on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', which provides substantial documentation to support this claim.&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon replied, {{quote|

I think that is also true. You want to believe things that are closer to your own experience, so it is very challenging for people who don't have that experience to believe that another experience is true. 

It happens a lot with my poetry when I travel and I read about the experiences that happened to me in my childhood. Quite often, people will come to me and say, &quot;Did that really happen to you?&quot; 

While, if I am in an audience where either we're mostly women or women of color, they'll come up to me and say, &quot;Thank you for writing that. It is very similar to my own experience.&quot; 

It is hard for people to believe things that are outside their sphere. That's why things like what's happening in the [[w:Middle East|Middle East]] is so hard for people to grasp. Here in the United States, we do not understand what it means to have your homes bombed. Or to be chased out of your own home. We don't understand the idea that you need to leave your country. So that is why immigration is such a hot button issue. 

That is why investing in military support is such a hot button issue, because we don't understand what it is to be in those situations.}} 

=== ''Black Like Me'' ===

Graves noted that his grandmother was deeply moved by the book ''[[w:Black Like Me|Black Like Me]]'', which came out in the early part of the civil rights movement.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1961).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon said, &quot;There's a book called ''Empathy and the Novel'', which talks about how fiction and literature move people, and how much can a novel or how much can a poem move someone? Can it move them toward action?&lt;ref&gt;Keen (2007).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Graves continued, &quot;That book was written by apparently a white guy who took some kind of medication to turn his skin dark and traveled throughout the [[w:Southern United States|South]], and wrote about his experiences -- a white guy being treated like an African American. That book had, apparently, a pretty decent impact on a lot of folks. 

Canyon replied, &quot;I can see how that would, because he's the same person, except his skin is different. So he was able to say, &quot;I went through this situation as a white guy, and it was fine. But when I changed the color of my skin, it was a different situation.&quot;

=== MALD and MFA === 

Graves noted that Canyon has a Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy&lt;ref&gt;&lt;!--Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy (MALD)--&gt;{{cite Q|Q100606027}} (MALD).&lt;/ref&gt; from the [[w:Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy|Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]]. He asked her to talk about that. 

Canyon said, {{quote|

I do have a Master of Art in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School, and I also have a [[w:Master of Fine Arts|Master of Fine Arts]], which I just earned about a week ago from [[w:Mississippi University for Women|Mississippi University for Women]] in creative writing. 

It was challenging for me when I decided to pursue international studies with Fletcher, because I have this need to be a journalist. Truth is very important to me. Ever since I was a child, and I used to watch ''[[w:Lou Grant (TV series)|Lou Grant]]'', I wanted to be a journalist that investigated stories and reported the truth to people and help people understand what's going on in the world. But I'm also a poet, so I had those competing drivers. There is one school that would have done that for me, where I could have studied both journalism and poetry: It was [[w:Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]. But I didn't go to Dartmouth. I decided to go to Fletcher, and that was a tremendous experience for me. It was hard. It was very challenging. 

You learned a lot about how the mechanisms work --  not only about the US government but [[w:United Nations System|UN systems]], other international organizations around the world. You were put into scenarios of world events, and you had to figure out how you would solve those problems if you had to make those decisions. 

Fletcher trains the next decision makers of this world. I talk about the United States military being in every country in the world. I believe that we could also say that about Fletcher graduates, that we are all over the world trying to do the best we can to make this a better place.}}

=== Deterrence theory === 

Graves said, &quot;I've interviewed [[w:Richard Ned Lebow|Richard Ned Le Beau]], who's a leading expert on [[w:Deterrence theory|deterrence theory]]. He knows that the foundations of deterrence theory assume that your leaders and the leaders of your opposition are rational. But that's contradicted by the available evidence of all kinds of political and military leaders that prove that they're often not terribly rational.&lt;ref&gt;Lebow (2024); Lebow et al. (2023).&lt;/ref&gt; Your comment.&quot;

Canyon agreed, &quot;That is true. The term [[w:Mutually assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]] comes to mind, where we assume that the United States and China and the [[w:Soviet Union|USSR]] are going to be rational and not enter into conflicts that impact the planet. But I would say, are they being rational in the tiny impacts that happen? You are hard pressed to find any government that tries to act in the best interest of this planet, of the people, when you're bombing countries and leaving millions homeless. When you are leaving children starving and rationalizing it under the guise of security, you are not being a rational human being.&quot; 

Graves said, &quot;You can only play chicken so many times before everybody loses.&quot; 

Canyon agreed, &quot;Exactly.&quot; 

=== Department of War ===

Graves noted that the Peace Economy Project website has a recent blog discussing the US &quot;Department of War&quot; by their founder, Mary Ann McGivern.&lt;ref&gt;McGivern (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, {{quote|

Yes, Mary Ann McGivern. I asked her to write that article because before it was dubbed the &quot;Department of War&quot;, Mary Ann didn't like that we were calling it the &quot;[[w:United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]&quot;. She said it was completely inaccurate, that they were not concerned with defense. They were not concerned with protecting the United States. They were about creating war. So when it happened,&lt;ref&gt;President Trump signed [[w:Executive Order 14347|Executive Order 14347]] titled, &quot;Restoring the United States Department of War&quot; on 2025-09-05. However, the official name is still the &quot;Department of Defense&quot;, because it was created by the &lt;!--National Security Act Amendments of 1949--&gt;{{cite Q|Q122052416}} and cannot be changed by an executive order. Its predecessor was the &quot;[[w:United States Department of War|Deparment of War]]&quot;, established by Congress in 1789, the first year of the US under its current constitution.&lt;/ref&gt; I said, &quot;Mary Ann, you're the one who needs to talk about this, because a lot of people in the country were upset that they changed the name because they felt that with the name change there would be a focus change.&quot; Mary Ann was saying, &quot;That happened long ago. Now they're being truthful.&quot; 

That was something that Mary Ann was definitely qualified to write about, because she was our founder. She is very passionate about peace. She's a nun. I do have an appreciation for nuns and their ability to stand out against the common narrative, and stand up and say, &quot;No! This is what the truth is,&quot; and not be afraid of that. 

I wouldn't call myself a person of faith, but I admire people who are and use that faith in order to help others to see the greater truth of preserving this planet.}}

Graves countered, &quot;I would say that our Secretary of War, Hegseth, would consider himself a person of faith. He has monthly prayer meetings in the Pentagon during normal working hours.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth#Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war|Pentagon Christian worship services and &quot;biblically sanctioned war]]&quot; in the Wikipedia article on &quot;[[w:Pete Hegseth|Pete Hegseth]]&quot;, accessed 2026-06-22.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[w:Military Religious Freedom Foundation|Military Religious Freedom Foundation]] has reported they'd received over 200 complaints from over 50 different US military installations that said that they were told to spread the good word that Jesus has anointed President Trump to light the signal fires in Iran leading to Armageddon.&lt;ref&gt;Mordowanec (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; 

Canyon replied, &quot;That is frightening to say the least. I don't think that there isn't a place for faith in people's life, but there definitely needs to be a [[w:Separation of church and state|separation of church and state]].

=== Close with a poem ===

When Graves noted that we were out of time and asked for final words, Canyon wanted to read a poem she had written a few years ago during the early stages of the war against Palestinians. It's called 

::'''Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]]'''&lt;ref&gt;Canyon agreed to release this poem under the [[w:Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License|Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA) 4.0 International License]].&lt;/ref&gt;

It was based on a photo that she saw in ''[[w:The New York Times|The New York Times]]: 

:Waiting in [[w:Al-Shifa Hospital|Al-Shifa Hospital]].
:Privacy requires no space at all. 
:Fluorescent lights glow white along the ceiling, 
:except for the one that is out. 
:Bombs erupt, sirens wail, or children cry. 
:[[wiktionary:Decubitus|Decubitus]] people fill the gurneys that line the hallway. 
:A long white river of linoleum runs between the rows. 
:Rippling walls of blue plastic curtains embarrass the sky. 
:One gray man stands in the middle of it all, 
:like I imagine my granddaddy stood next to my mama during the [[w:Polio#Epidemiology|polio epidemic]]. 
:That was another century. 
:This is a whole new tragedy for people. 
:I want to ask the [[w:monarch butterfly|monarch butterfly]], the puppet, the sun 
:to stop to put down their bread and circuses, 
:But the man wearing a baseball cap 
:picks up his cellphone and turns his back to the camera. 
:I see a woman in a black hijab toward the back, 
:but I cannot make out her face. 
:The man in black lying in the front gurney 
:is missing at least two fingers.
 
== The need for media reform to improve democracy == 

This article is part of [[:category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. A summary of episodes to 2025-11-15 is available in [[Media &amp; Democracy lessons for the future]]. 

==Discussion ==

:''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]&lt;ref name=NPOV/&gt; and treating others with respect.&lt;ref name=AGF/&gt;]''

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006) A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2021-10-28) Surviving Home--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291339}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-03-23) &quot;When Defense Endangers Civilians: Urgent Questions After the Bahrain Explosion&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310269}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (2026-05-12) &quot;Record Pentagon Spending, Diminished Security: A $1.5 Trillion Warning&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310176}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon (in preparation) Los Angeles Nomad--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291360|date=in preparation}}
* &lt;!--Katerina Canyon and Aja Canyon (2017-09-16) Changing the Lines--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140291385}}
* &lt;!--John Howard Griffin (1961) Black Like Me--&gt;{{cite Q|Q126453723|author=John Howard Griffin}}
* &lt;!--Suzanne Keen (2007-05-03) Empathy and the Novel--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140236008}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow (2024-03-26) Deterrence, its failures, and relations between the US and China--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140315485}}
* &lt;!--Richard Ned Lebow, Douglas A. Samuelson, and Spencer Graves (2023-11-29) Richard Ned Lebow on national defense including deterrence--&gt;{{cite Q|Q124351846}}
* &lt;!--Mary Ann McGivern (2026-05-27) The War Department: What’s in a Name?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140314425}}
* &lt;!--Nick Mordowanec (2026-03-03) &quot;Commanders Accused of Framing Iran War as Biblical Mandate, Jesus' 'Return'&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138840951}}
* &lt;!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Theodore Postol (1991-92) &quot;Lessons of the Gulf War experience with Patriot&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310330|date=1991-92}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2019) Warheads to Windmills: How to pay for a Green New Deal--&gt;{{cite Q|Q104969895}}
* &lt;!--Timmon Wallis (2023-12-15) Warheads to Windmills: Preventing Climate Catastrophe and Nuclear War--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140310033}}

[[Category:Media]]
[[Category:News]]
[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Media literacy]]
[[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]
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